Parenting In Pride and Prejudice Essay

The novel Pride and Prejudice involves many topics and symbolizes different aspects of life and behavior of people. In this essay I am going to analyze and discuss the theme of parenthood. I will only comment on the characters that are parents or come over as parents, namely, Mr. Bennet, Mrs. Bennet, Mr. Gardiner, Mrs. Gardiner and Lady Catherine De Bourgh. The last character mentioned may not come over as a parent but she acts like one. To begin with, I will start talking about the Bennet family. If we look at the Bennets with modern eyes, we could say that their behavior towards their daughters is very different from how parents get along with their children nowadays. In modern society parents do not marry of their children, we could see this as old fashioned. But in the 19th century the wealthy families wanted that their descendants married other wealthy families in order to save their property. The happiness and feelings of the children did not matter to the parents as we can see in Pride and Prejudice. Mr. Bennet loves his family but he detaches from them in order not to get involved with their lives. He gets on really well with Elizabeth because they both are the most intelligent members of the Bennet family. But as the novel evolves he turns into a father that is weak and in critical moments he fails his family. For instance, he fails his family when Lydia runs off with Wickham. [†¦] â€Å"My dear Mr. Bennet,† said his lady to him one day, â€Å"have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?† Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. â€Å"But it is,† returned she; â€Å"for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.† Mr. Bennet made no answer. â€Å"Do not you want to know who has taken it?† cried his wife impatiently. â€Å"You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.† [†¦] (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Volume I, Chapter I, page 5) In this short extract of the novel Pride and Prejudice a lot is shown about Mr. Bennet and his wife. In the first six lines it is seen that Mr. Bennet does not care that someone has come to live to Netherfield Park. Instead his wife insists on telling him everything she knows about it. Mr. Bennet, to me, does not care and in a way teases his wife by being so uninterested. He knows that this behavior makes his wife very nervous but the last line takes all the tension away. You expect a huge quarrel but instead you read this line and, at least I was, a little bit astonished because I did not expect that answer, reality from him. Going back to the topic of parenting this extract is quite interesting. It shows that Mr. Bennet is passive about everything that has to do with his daughters but, on the other hand, Mrs. Bennet wants to know everything that is going on because she wants to marry off her daughters to a wealthy gentleman. She can only think of that. She does not care at all about the feeling of her daughters. [†¦] â€Å"Dining out,† said Mrs. Bennet, â€Å"that is very unlucky.† â€Å"Can I have the carriage,† said Jane. â€Å"No, my dear, you had better go on horseback, because it seems likely to rain; and then you must stay all night.† â€Å"That would be a good scheme,† said Elizabeth, â€Å"if you were sure that they would not offer to send her home.† â€Å"Oh! But the gentleman will have Mr. Bingley’s chaise to go to Meryton; and Hursts have no horses theirs.† â€Å"I much rather go in the coach.† â€Å"But, my dear, your father cannot spare the horses, I am sure. They are wanted in the farm, Mr. Bennet, are they not?† (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Volume I, Chapter 7, page 31) Here we can see the clear interest of Mrs. Bennet towards Jane, the oldest daughter. She wants her daughter to go to the lunch and to stay over there because it probably will rain. Even though there is a chance that Jane gets ill, Mrs. Bennet insists on Jane going over to the lunch. This behavior shows the readers that she cares about her daughter but, she only wants to be sure that the property and everything that they posses will not end up with Mr. Bennet’s cousin. Mrs. Bennet continues to behave in this way during whole the novel. At no point, the reader can see affection from Mrs. Bennet towards her daughters. Certainly, we can see no motherly behavior; she never gets involved with the daily chores of the house or with the personal hygiene of her daughters. Something that mothers nowadays do a lot, getting involved with her children’s life. Mr. and Mrs. Gardiner are very different from Mr. and Mrs. Bennet. The Gardiners do care about the feeling of their children. In this case they get along very well with Jane and Elizabeth and help them with the struggle they have with Bingley and Darcy. We can see that Mrs. Gardiner cares for her nieces because she does things to protect the girls, so as to prevent them to do certain things they might regret in the future. She protects them as a mother should do, she gives them advice, and she listens to the girls. Mrs. Gardiner is the opposite of Mrs. Bennet. The former involves more in the lives of the girls and guides them through it while the latter just wants that her daughters to marry some rich man in order not to lose their possessions they have at Longbourn. In the next extract the readers can see what kind of a woman Mrs. Gardiner is: [†¦] Her aunt assured her that she was; and Elizabeth having thanked her for the kindness of her hinds, they parted; a wonderful instance of advice being given on such a point, without being resented. [†¦] (Austen, Volume II, Chapter III, page 143) Austen describes Mr. Gardiner in the following way: â€Å"Mr. Gardiner was a sensible, gentlemanlike man, greatly superior to his sister as well by nature as education.†(Austen, Volume II, Chapter 2, page 137) Although Mr. Gardiner does not appear much in the novel he is present every time his carrying wife appears. Frankly, every time Mrs. Gardiner appears I imagine that her husband is involved in the conversation and thought of his wife. Lady Catherine De Bourgh is Darcy’s aunt and she does not want that some girl, especially not with lower social wealth marries her nephew. Lady De Bourgh is a very wealthy woman and with this she thinks that she has to tell other people how, why and when they should do things or not. When she finds out that Elizabeth is very fond of Darcy she asks Elizabeth many questions; on the one hand, to let Elizabeth know that she is more intelligent and from a higher social class; on the other hand, to maybe scare Elizabeth off. If we analyze this behavior taking in consideration parenthood, we could say that she is protective and cares about her family. After all, the reader knows who and what kind of woman she is and that all those questions are just for personal interest and not to help her nephew Darcy. To conclude, I would like to say that many different manners of being a parent appear in the novel. We have seen the Bennet family, the Gardiner family and Lady Catherine De Bourgh. We could say that the Mr. and Mrs. Bennet are cold people; they do not care about the feelings of their children and they only care about their reputation and social wealth. On the other hand the Gardiners are protective towards the Bennet girls. They try to help them by giving them advice and to talk to other people to find out in what situation the girls are putting themselves into. Last but not least, Lady Catherine De Bourgh. She is from a wealthy social class and does everything she can so that no one with a lower social wealth comes into her family. Finally she has to accept that Elizabeth and Darcy get married. In the end I could say that different types of parenthood appear in the novel. To me, parents should get involved in the life of their children, to protect them and prevent them of making mistakes they will regret. Being a good parent involves being there for your children and not to act in your personal interest. The only family that is honest, to me, is the Gardiner family.

A Newly Proposed Taxation Policy: The Fair Tax Act of 2007

Americans For Fair Taxation is a private, non-profit research and advocacy group that assembled a group of American economists to work on a federal tax code that would be â€Å"simpler,† â€Å"fairer,† and â€Å"more progressive† than before.The objective of the team was to design a new tax system that would be â€Å"revenue-neutral† and capable of truly unleashing the potential of the economy.   The new tax system was also meant to help in the â€Å"â€Å"new wealth creation for every working American.†Ã‚   The result was the H.R. 25: The Fair Tax Act of 2007 (â€Å"Executive Summary,† 2007).The Fair Tax Act of 2007 is today a proposal with the Congress.   As of the last day of the year 2008, the Act is meant to repeal both income taxes as well as payroll taxes.   According to the proposal, no individual’s income will be taxed after the implementation of the new Act.   â€Å"Capital gains taxes† in addition to the â₠¬Å"alternative minimum tax† would also be repealed.The Act includes payroll taxes of individuals as well as employers.   Medicare, federal unemployment taxes, and Social Security, would similarly be repealed when they are a part of the payroll taxes.The Fair Tax Act of 2007 further mentions corporate income taxes, gift and estate taxes, and the self-employment taxes to be repealed, thereby making it easier for Americans to enjoy their earnings and their wealth without paying the price of prosperity in taxes (â€Å"The Fair Tax,† 2007).The Fair Tax has been proposed as a replacement for the above mentioned taxes as of January 1, 2009.   The new tax is actually explained as a â€Å"national retail sales tax on all goods and services sold at retail.†The fact that it is still a tax for the government to generate revenues through, the new tax is meant to be â€Å"revenue-neutral,† which suggests that the new tax would have to be set at a level that is neces sary to generate government revenues the present sources of which would have to be replaced through it (â€Å"The Fair Tax†).The new tax would act as a 23 percent sales tax on all goods and services bought through retailers for personal consumption.   The exports of the United States will not be taxed on the principles of the Fair Tax.Similarly, business purchases of inputs are not to be taxed under the newly proposed taxation policy.   Other items exempted include used or old goods, investments, savings, plus education expenses including tuition fees (â€Å"The Fair Tax†).

Managing Performance Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Managing Performance - Case Study Example In addition, the deficiency is also important as it contains the relevant information that has been ignored and that gives a wider view of the performance of the employees. However, the performance measures should try to minimize contamination and deficiency in order to obtain validity (Bach, 44). b. The measure that lacks specificity reduce the effectiveness of a performance appraisal, therefore they should be specific in that they are told what they are expected to do and how the outcome they are supposed to deliver through feedback. Being specific helps the leaders and the employees to meet the set goals of the business. There are strategies that should be put in place in order to specify what the employees are expected to do. For this reason, a measure that lacks specify does not help to meet the set goals of the organization. Employer should point out the specific issues that he feels the employees are failing to improve (Bach, 25). c. Quality is one of the components that can be employed in this sports company so that the company can produce sportswear that are of high quality and unique than the other companies. Secondly, timely, this indicates that the goods produced should be readily available at a store for distribution 2a. Behavioral approach and the results approach performance management is important, behavioral approach is a measure of performance where the bad behavior is monitored, and the bad behavior is discouraged through various means while good performance is rewarded. Result-performance where the employee is rewarded for better performance in order to encourage them to work hard and get more rewards such as promotions, additional payment, increased commission among others (Bach, 14). 2b. Result approach is the best since it makes the workers work hard as they will work with minimum supervision, as well as they can sacrifice to work more hours in order to meet the target. However, behavioral approach is not

Article Review #4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Article Review #4 - Essay Example The planners of this operation knew that in order to do so, the true scale of the convoy must be hidden from Axis knowledge; once the Axis do learn of it, their leaders must be kept from knowing its true objectives and their forces must be kept preoccupied far from the intended landing sites of the Allied forces. In his article â€Å"Fortuitous endeavor: intelligence and deception in Operation Torch†, Commander Patch pieced together the planning and execution of this ambitious undertaking and underscored the significance of military deception and signals intelligence to its success. Torch planning commenced in August 1942 with the formation of the Armed Forces Headquarters (AFHQ) led by General Eisenhower. During the planning, signals intelligence (SIGINT) of Allied forces was greatly enhanced when the British’s Government Code and Cipher School (GCCS) broke down high-grade Axis cipher codes, providing a source of intelligence information known as ULTRA. The intelligence information gathered by Allied forces helped shaped the strategic and operational framework of Torch. Particularly, SIGINT sources provided decrypts and Y-intelligence that informed Torch planners about weather conditions in Axis-controlled areas, accounts of Axis order of battle, movements of Axis shipping and naval assets, intentions of Axis leaders, and the Axis’ perceptions of the intent of Allied Forces. The latter helped Torch planners gauge the efficacy of their deception measures, a strategy they employed to help secure their covert operation. Deception measures in war strategies have been valued as far back as the time of Sun Tzu but it has never been used in the scale that Operation Torch intended. Here again, signals intelligence played a key role. The extensive double-agent network controlled by British forces planted information that was to confuse the Axis forces regarding the true objectives of the massive

Examining My Community's Source of Energy Essay

Examining My Community's Source of Energy - Essay Example This paper seeks to establish the sources of energy in Hillsborough County, Florida both at the basic home level and the community level. It will look into the type of energy in use and the approximate cost of energy from the household to the community. This will also include the impacts of the energy source to the community over the time it has been in use and seek to establish new alternative sources that can effectively replace the existing sources with consideration to the effects both to the household and the environment. Sources of energy for the community Hillsborough County in Florida is a community that has several choices on the sources of energy to use. This comes as a result of the availability of several companies that specialize in provision of the different types of energy. Currently, there are around sixteen energy production companies in the area. The common types of energy source in use are coal, electricity, solar energy and wood. However, is worth noting that thes e sources of energy are mostly generated locally which leads to the centralized pollution system to the environment by the well over sixteen companies in the area. ... The coal is also used for the same reason of heat and energy production by the companies though there are a small number of households that make home use of it. Impacts of available energy sources on home and community The discussion about use of coal, wood and the production of electricity are all embroiled in the fact that to some extent, they all pollute the environment. The United States of America is one of the countries with the highest use of coal. In the locality, the disaster caused by the use of coal cannot be undermined. One effect of coal use is the radiation exposure. Coal is known to contain traces of Uranium and Thorium which are radioactive materials that occur naturally occur naturally. The coal wastes from the plants are known to be highly disastrous than the direct emissions from a nuclear plant. The other long term effects of the gases released from the use of coal are those associated with the greenhouse gas release to the environment. These greenhouse gases are of great hazard especially to the ozone layer depletion. The third negated effect of coal use is that it causes so many annual deaths. In the United States at large, the deaths resulting from the coal particulate pollution and ground level ozone without effective pollution control measures is on the increase. The deaths are caused by probable development of lung cancer, heart attacks and the acute bronchitis to the victims. Coal also when used even in traces release methyl mercury to the environment. This is a mercury emission that is very fatal to the plant and animal life. The air emissions related to use of coal in this environment is of absolute interest. There are a

Censorship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Censorship - Essay Example The act of censorship is now done more for the benefit of children, yet many people believe it should be the responsibility of the parent to monitor what their children read or watch, and not the responsibility of the government or a stranger from an organization. After all, Cleland’s novel was proven to be harmless. However, this might be different if the book were in the hands of a child. It has been brought up of whether or not media should be censored since times and opinions have changed, and if media is censored, if adults should also face censorship to strengthen the protection towards children. The practice of censorship has evolved to protect children more than anybody else, though adults are also effected by this as it becomes difficult for them to access their own mature media. Books and movies that are considered inappropriate are kept out of reach from younger children. These pieces of media contain subject matter that are too advanced for children, such as excess ive violence, sexual activity, drug and alcohol use, or other topics that are thought to be taboo or else unsuitable for young eyes. This is perhaps the main reason, if not the only reason, why books and movies, as well as many video games, are censored from children. Censorship is not done out of a need to deny children of their entertainment, but to ensure that younger children are obtaining entertainment that is right for them. This may also prove to be overly paternalistic to parents since it may mean difficulties in obtaining their own entertainment, but they still need to play their part in making sure that children cannot access their adult material. On the other side of the argument against censoring media is that it causes many people to cross the line between protecting and overprotecting a child. By censoring certain material, children are being denied glimpses into many of the ideas and concepts of the real world. Censorship tends to go too far, sheltering children from the real world around them. They become unaware of all that the world has to offer in way of unique, independent, and creative thoughts and experiences. Censorship also teaches children that, in regard to media, there is an undue concept of good and evil, which can cause a child to continue to censor themselves as they become adults. They begin to be judgmental at a very young age when growing up in a censored environment, never allowing themselves to open up to everything that the world has to offer to their growing minds. Censorship should be used, but implemented in a way so that children cannot gain access to media that is deemed inappropriate by parents, teachers, and other adults that have authority and influence over children. While many schools, families, and even libraries acknowledge media that is inappropriate based on a common standard of decency, such as media involving graphic sex, drugs, and violence, they still make it readily available for young children to have acc ess. This is because a lot of it remains accessible to adults, but still within grasp of children. The material that should be censored should be done so because the material is too advanced, and oftentimes harsh and graphic, for children. Not only can they be negatively impacted by some of what they read

Annotated Bibiograpgies of 6 SPANISH works Bibliography

Bibiograpgies of 6 SPANISH works - Annotated Bibliography Example El fama mas destacado de Dario esta derivado de estos tres. Sin embargo, Azul, reconocido como la obra que mas defina el movimiento modernista, es una coleccion de prosa y verso que representa la interpretacion de Dario. Esta intepretacion incluye principios artisticos de la escuela de parnassismo frances. Este enfoque en el parnassismo frances incluye restriccion, objetividad, y descripcion precisa, en su lengua nativa. Con sus temas y sintaxis directo, las escrituras en Azul reanimen a la literatura espanola. Desde su titulo enigmatico a la estructura de de la obra, que consiste de historias y poemas, es la obra mas representativa del periodo modernista. Ya esta aceptado que con esta coleccion de poesia, Dario se ha dado un nuevo sentido y ritmo a la lengua espanola. Su obra Azul es una parte de trabajo que de veras merece reconocimiento ancho. Annotated Bibliography (cont'd) Franco, Jean. An Introduction to Spanish-American Literature. 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 1995. sta es una edicin revisada, actualizada de la obra clsica de Jean Franco que se llama Introduction to Spanish-American Literature. Primero publicada en 1969, esta obra se ha sido recomendada mucho puesto que ese tiempo. El alcance de esta obra se extiende a partir de las pocas coloniales hasta hoy en dia. Los captulos posteriores fueron refundidos radicalmente para tomar cuenta de la mayora de los recientes desarrollos en literatura y crticas. Las traducciones inglesas se proporcionan para las citas espaolas en el texto, y las listas de lectura extensivamente actualizadas de material primario y secundario. Estas listas se refieren no slo a los textos espaoles pero tambin, donde disponibles, para las ediciones en ingls. En su...Con sus temas y sintaxis directo, las escrituras en Azul reanimen a la literatura espanola. sta es una edicin revisada, actualizada de la obra clsica de Jean Franco que se llama Introduction to Spanish-American Literature. Primero publicada en 1969, esta obra se ha sido recomendada mucho puesto que ese tiempo. El alcance de esta obra se extiende a partir de las pocas coloniales hasta hoy en dia. Los captulos posteriores fueron refundidos radicalmente para tomar cuenta de la mayora de los recientes desarrollos en literatura y crticas. Las traducciones inglesas se proporcionan para las citas espaolas en el texto, y las listas de lectura extensivamente actualizadas de material primario y secundario. Estas listas se refieren no slo a los textos espaoles pero tambin, donde disponibles, para las ediciones en ingls. En su estudio importante, Jean Franco dedica su introduccin a la literatura de Amrica espaola. Esta cubierto el periodo entre la Conquista y circa 1750, y dentro de sa, da el apenas un por ciento de su paginacion al tratamiento de la literatura indgena. Desde la publicacin de este libro, sin embargo, la nocin de las obras literarias hispanoamericanas ha alterado drsticamente y la

MicroFHess Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MicroFHess - Essay Example Example: as more and more fertilizers are employed by the famers, production of crops may increase by the same unit of fertilizers employed, ceteris paribus. 3. Economic profit is the difference between revenues received from the sale of output and opportunity cost (Mankiw, 1998). For example, the difference between incomes received from selling a car and forgone alternatives of making that car. 4. Law of diminishing returns states that when other factors are held constant any additional unit of input leads to an increase in output at a declining rate till at a certain point where any additional input leads to a decline in output (Hall and Lieberman, 2010). For example, if more fertilizers are added in the production of wheat the output increases till a certain point when any additional unit of fertilizers added leads to a decline in output of wheat. 5. Marginal product of labour is the additional amount of output that is being produced when a firm decide sto employ additional labour in the production process (Hall and Lieberman, 2010). For example, a firm may produces 10 units of output with a labour of 5 people, and after adding another 5 people output may increases to 20 units. 6. Monopolistic competition. Is a type of market structure with many sellers selling similar but differentiated products whereby each seller has the freedom of setting his or her own selling price (Mankiw, 2011). Example: in the United States numerous sellers differentiate their products and the prices for those products (Mankiw, 2011). 7. Sunk cost refers to the amount of money that has already been spent and can not be recovered (Hall and Lieberman, 2010). For example: Amount of money incurred by investor to start and operate a business. 8. The principal-agent problem refers to a conflict of interest that arises when the agent pursues the same interest as his principal (Mankiw, 2011). Example: car dealer hires an agent to sell his cars to particular

Report on The Correlation of physical strength to perfomance on Essay

Report on The Correlation of physical strength to perfomance on physically demanding jobs - Essay Example Physically demanding jobs like those that can be obtained in the armed forces, emergency rescue, construction, heavy-equipment industries and the like require a high level of physical capabilities. Occupations that involve long and cyclical duties such as lifting, carrying, pulling and pushing can potentially cause cumulative trauma disorders such as â€Å"back pain, sprains, strains, carpal tunnel syndrome, and neck pain† (Nindl & Sharp, 2011). Understandably, when workers are blighted by physical traumas and injuries, they become less effective in carrying out their duties and responsibilities; hence, it could have a potentially negative effect on the job performance on the whole, and eventually on the entire organization. So, this paper shall elaborate on the correlation between physical strength of workers and job performance on physically demanding jobs. In order to clearly and accurately demonstrate a decisive inference on whether a correlation exists or not, this paper shall focus on two measures: arm strength and grip strength. Data Set No. 18 S. No. GRIP x ARM y RATINGS z SIMS Mean Score (x,y, z) Mean Score (x, y) 1 100.5 51 30.2 0.77 60.57 75.75 2 95 64.5 36 -1.97 65.17 79.75 3 75.5 57.5 42.1 0.35 58.37 66.50 6 54.5 35 39.8 -1.68 43.10 44.75 7 131 86 37 1.03 84.67 108.50 8 147 71 57.2 0.53 91.73 109.00 9 104 47.5 31.2 1 60.90 76.00 10 104.5 69 38 -1.43 70.50 86.75 11 120 100 52.4 1.24 90.8 110.00 12 128.5 93.5 46.4 3.16 89.47 111.00 13 29 19 28 -4.17 25.33 24.00 14 128.5 88 57 0.91 91.17 108.25 15 98.5 65.5 29.6 -1.29 64.53 82.00 Solution By simply taking the arm and grip endurance at a particular length of time, arm and grip strength have been measured and tallied for analysis. For the first calculation of the mean score, that is, (x, y, z), ratings have been included in order to identify the significance of ratings in determining the correlation between arm and grip strength and job performance. Nevertheless, to find if ratings do have a subs tantial effect on the overall job performance, a second mean score has been measured. Interpretation Scatter plots could have been utilized in order to graphically display the relationships between the strength scores and ratings, and how the two measures relate with ratings and work simulation scores. But, the table itself can already tell enough that participants with lower strength scores have lower ratings from their employers, which could mean that they performed less effectively that their counterparts. By simply analysing the data, one can automatically conclude that, indeed, there is a correlation between physical strength on performance on physically demanding jobs. Take for instance the comparison of the mean scores and sims between participant 1 and participant 13, participant has got a better simulation and mean score as compared to participant 13 despite the fact that participant 1 got a considerably low ratings. Furthermore, there is not much relationship between ratin gs and physical strengths. Some participants who have higher physical strength do necessarily have higher performance ratings from their employers. Such is the case of participant 12 and 15; nonetheless, it

Machiavelli the prince Essay Example for Free

Machiavelli the prince Essay Machiavelli emphasized the value the need of stability in the domain of the prince. Machiaveli argued that virtuous and stable state is the greatest moral good and the effort to protect one’s country regardless of what it will take. What is important is that, one is to do anything to save the country and to sustain his power. Furthermore, Machiavelli noted that the prince should not be disrespected. The prince should be feared and loved, but it is much better to fear that loved According to Machiavelli; rule is justified by force but not by law. He proposed some of the actions that may be done to perpetuate power. His idea generally is based on how one can take and controlled leadership in a particular country and use it maximum level. Some of his area of interest was on defense and military, reputation of the prince, generosity vs. parsimony, cruelty vs. mercy, avoiding contempt and hatred gaining honors, noble and staff, avoiding flattering, and how to get fortune. According to him the greater achievement of the prince is when the prince has acquired all the above factors. Conclusion Ethical behavior principal as it has been viewed in this paper is fundamental for the development of the potentialities of the person and the achievement of any particular company. The most important thing is the unified relation among the society members such that whatever they do will be guided by the virtues or values of good behavioral actions. Reference: Irwin, T. H. (1999) â€Å"Republic 2: Question justice,† in Plato 2: Ethics politics, Politics, Religious, the soul, ed. Grail Fine Oxford: Oxford University press, pp. 164. 185 American Psychological Association. (1953). The ethical standards of psychologists. Washington, DC: Author. Leal, L. (1998). T

Reflect on the Way the Workplace Will Change During Career

Reflect on the Way the Workplace Will Change During Career Reflect on the way the workplace will change during your career. How will it affect you? How will you prepare? How will you respond to the changes? With the social development and progress of the times, people change their workplace. They prefer to work at home instead of working in the office. Every people has their own work methods. Some prefer to work in office ‘cause they can come up with a lot more new ideas. But I think it is better for workers to work alone. Because they are more productive when they sit there alone and think independently. By making a reasonable and flexible schedule, they can manage the time and control the pace and thus improve their working efficiency. Also, they are not easily distracted by some other things like noise, laughter, etc. Instead, they are more focused and trying to accomplish the task by themselves. When workers meet to work in office, they often waste time discussing matters that have nothing to do with their work. Another reason is working at home can save more dispensable time and fee. People can efficient avoid the peak of traffic jam. And also someone think home can provide more comfortable environment, in the noon, people usually want to sleep or have a break. But working in the office can develop worker thinking skills and sense of cooperation by discussing problems together. Since everyone thinks in different ways, they have to learn how to communicate and work well with others. And workers can help each other to analyze the problem and identify possible solutions quickly. I think that the high-tech will help us tackle almost everything we are faced with. Internet and cell phones supply us many possibilities and opportunities. What is more, with advancement of modern society, forms of communication become more and more convenience, we can communicate with leaders and colleagues any time and at any place. In conclusion, it is apparent that working at home could enhance the efficiency of working, enables us to save lots of money, and bring us more opportunities to take care of our family members. Assignment 2-6 Assignment Topic: Think of discrimination you have observed, been the subject of, or perhaps you were the perpetrator of. Reflect on the situations that you feel were (are) particularly unfair. Reflect on any situations that you feel were reasonable in the circumstances. We often meet in the life of discrimination. Most of people have experienced some kind of discrimination when seeking jobs some organizations pose ridiculous conditions when recruiting new employees. In recruitment advertisements, enterprises often list lots of discriminative prerequisites such as age, gender, height, graduate schools and specific location of household registration. I mainly talk about sexual discrimination, age discrimination living and habit discrimination. First, Sexual discrimination still can be seen frequently in our daily life. Compared to man, women have more difficulty in getting a job and more chance of getting demoted or denied when they are qualified for the job the same as or even better than man. What’s more, sexual harassment to women is another common phenomenon can be seen at office. In my opinion, I feel Sexual discrimination is particularly unfair. As far as I am concerned, to solve the problem, certain associations should be established to supervise companies and women themselves ought to increase the awareness to protect their rights. Second, some employers are who will choose not to hire someone or promote someone because of that persons age. Most elderly can communicate well, are experienced planners, can organize and prioritize, and are good problem solvers. On the other hand, Young people are missing out on opportunities to progress at work simply because some employers assume they are too young to cope with more responsibility. In my opinion, I feel age discrimination is particularly unfair. Age discrimination is illegal. Third, living and habit discrimination like smoking. Smoking causes many illnesses. A lot of people always cough because of smoking. Meanwhile smoking is a waste of money. Besidesà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’ careless smokers may cause dangerous fires. In my opinion, I feel were reasonable in the As smoking habits discrimination. In order to keep healthyà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’ we should get rid of the bad habit of smoking. In conclusion, I think that mostly discrimination is wrong and should be stopped. Assignment 3-6 Assignment Topic: Reflect on the situations outlined on the previous slide. Would you work for these companies? Why or why not? Do you think that most people would agree with you? But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. How might their employees rationalize working for them? Wouldyou work for a company manufacturing legal products that have been found harmful to the health? Would you work for a company using cheap labor in India, China or other developing markets? Would you work for a company that has recently been embroiled in financial scandal? Would you work for a company that is often criticized in the media for exploiting the resources of third world countries? Would you continue working for a company that becomes involved in a bribery scandal abroad? Would you work for an organization whose product has never been proven and is criticized by most scientists? Applying for a job is one of the most suffering yet exciting things for human beings. People have to think about tons of realistic matters when applying for a job, such as salary, size of the company and working hours. But there are more important things to consider. First, I don’t work for a company manufacturing legal products that have been found harmful to the health. In my view, health is better than wealth. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that it is obligatory for all employees to wear protective clothing. Second, I don’t work for a company using cheap labor in India, China or other developing markets. In my view,, the company exploited its workers with long hours and low pay. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that the union is in talks with management about renewing the workers contract. Third, I don’t work for a company that has recently been embroiled in financial scandal. In my view, the company will close down.. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that employees are going to get a new job. Fourth, I don’t work for a company that is often criticized in the media for exploiting the resources ofthird world countries. In my view, each countries must have an equitable share.. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that employees were should give out advisable suggestion. Fifth, I don’t work for a company that becomes involved in a bribery scandal abroad. In my view, company has overthrown the basic standards of morality.. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that the union is in talks with management about establishing the new basic standards of morality. Sixth, I don’t work for an organization whose product has never been proven and is criticized by most scientists. In my view, I just look for company whos honest to society no matter what.. I think that most people would agree with me. But millions of people work for companies with these characteristics. My rationalize proposals is that No making until the product is completely proven. Therefore, they are all important when deciding to work for a company.

Structured Portfolio of My Teaching Activities Essay -- Clinical Fello

Structured Portfolio Assignment Prepare a structured portfolio relating to your teaching activities over a minimum of a 3 month period. Introduction This is a portfolio of the teaching activities I undertake as a Teaching Fellow. I will be reflecting on my activities and discussing the principles that I have tried to use to guide my teaching. I am a clinical teaching fellow in Medicine and I am involved with teaching undergraduate medical students. I am also involved with the examination of medical students at different stages of their study. This takes place in a variety of settings like bedside teaching, tutorials, lectures, mock examinations. I will include evidence of the different aspects of teaching I am involved with. I feel privileged to be involved in training medical students to become doctors and it is therefore my responsibility to make every effort to develop the skills needed to become a competent teacher. These skills according to the General Medical Council’s document Tomorrow’s Doctors(2009) involve using emotional intelligence when teaching the students, and teaching them with an awareness of what the curriculum objectives are. Background of My Teaching Role as a Clinical Teaching Fellow My teaching experience prior to my job as a teaching fellow was limited to impromptu bedside teaching of house-officers and medical students. However, when I was a medical student, I was involved in giving tutorials as well as organising revision sessions for my fellow students. Currently, I work as a Clinical Teaching Fellow, where medical students from the University at various levels of their training come for their clinical posting. The Medical school has a graduate entry programme for Medicine and therefore... ...ence. London: Routledge. Okuda, Y., Bryson, E. O., DeMaria, S., Jacobson, L., Quinones, J., Shen, B. & Levine, A. I. (2009) The Utility of Simulation in Medical Education: What Is the Evidence? Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine: A Journal of Translational and Personalized Medicine. 76: 330–343. Pratt, D. (2002) Good Teaching: One Size Fits All? New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2002(93): 5–16. Purcell N & Lloyd-Jones G. (2003) Standards for medical educators. Med Ed 37: 149–54. Sutkin, G., Wagner, E., Harris, I. & Schiffer, R. (2008) what makes a good clinical teacher in medicine? A review of the Literature. Academic Medicine. 83(5), May 2008. Yeates, P. J. A., Stewart, J., Barton, J. R. (2008) What can we expect of clinical teachers? Establishing consensus on applicable skills, attitudes and practices. Medical Education. 42:134-142.

The Taiwanese Development Model Since 1960 :: essays research papers

The Taiwanese Development Model Since 1960 According to Thomas Gold Taiwan offers a text book case of an elite-led revolution leading to social transformation. The stability of hard authoritarianism of the Taiwanese government laid the groundwork for Taiwanese development. The KMT's cohesiveness and political domination plus the economic development aid supplied by the United States also helped to provide good conditions for Taiwanese growth in the beginning. Once the KMT gained control of Taiwan they redistributed the land and launched a program of rehabilitation and industrialization. This period was responsible for the nationalization of many businesses formerly owned by the Japanese and the start of industrial production in Taiwan marked by a shift away from agriculture to industry. During the early period of industrialization Taiwan tried to create domestic markets for its goods. During the period from 1960 to 1973 Taiwan pursued export expansion in the area of industrial goods. During this period U.S. aid directed at Taiwan declined as did the islands geopolitical significance. To make up for this decline Taiwan focused on increasing its exports. The growth of the Taiwanese economy during this period according to Gold laid the ground work for the growth of opposition movements and loosening of the KMT"S grip on power. According to Gold this was because the changes in the Taiwanese economy brought about a middle class, a better educated populace, and a dispersion of industry through out the country. The Period from 1973 to 1984 Gold calls the time of industrial upgrading and the emergence of a political opposition. During this period Taiwan faced the oil shock, and increase in export prices due to a labor shortage that doubled workers salaries, a further loss of geopolitical prestige, and the growth of dissent and political opposition. Taiwan industrially during this time improved the quality and quantity of its exports. The Taiwan industrial model was that of a elite run bureaucracy that tightly controlled its nations citizenry in authoritarian ways. This authoritarian government was able to effectively channel the energies of Taiwan toward modernization. This authoritarian government became a victim of its own success because as living and education standards rose the citizenry demanded a shift away from hard authoritarianism. Taiwan is not a very good industrialization model for other countries to use outside of East Asia. This is because many of the factors that allowed Taiwanese industrialization were unique to Taiwan. First, Taiwan was colonized before 1950 by a developmentalist power, Japan to which is had close ties even after 1950. Second, Taiwan was the recipient of financial aid during its critical early years because of a inter-core competition for hegemony between

monsanto good or evil :: essays research papers

ANNISTON, Ala. -- On the west side of Anniston, the poor side of Anniston, the people ate dirt. They called it "Alabama clay" and cooked it for extra flavor. They also grew berries in their gardens, raised hogs in their back yards, caught bass in the murky streams where their children swam and played and were baptized. They didn't know their dirt and yards and bass and kids -- along with the acrid air they breathed -- were all contaminated with chemicals. They didn't know they lived in one of the most polluted patches of America. Now they know. They also know that for nearly 40 years, while producing the now-banned industrial coolants known as PCBs at a local factory, Monsanto Co. routinely discharged toxic waste into a west Anniston creek and dumped millions of pounds of PCBs into oozing open-pit landfills. And thousands of pages of Monsanto documents -- many emblazoned with warnings such as "CONFIDENTIAL: Read and Destroy" -- show that for decades, the corporate giant concealed what it did and what it knew. In 1966, Monsanto managers discovered that fish submerged in that creek turned belly-up within 10 seconds, spurting blood and shedding skin as if dunked into boiling water. They told no one. In 1969, they found fish in another creek with 7,500 times the legal PCB levels. They decided "there is little object in going to expensive extremes in limiting discharges." In 1975, a company study found that PCBs caused tumors in rats. They ordered its conclusion changed from "slightly tumorigenic" to "does not appear to be carcinogenic." the Environmental Protection Agency ordered General Electric Co. to spend $460 million to dredge PCBs it had dumped into the Hudson River in the past, perhaps the Bush administration's boldest environmental action to date. The decision was bitterly opposed by the company, but hailed by national conservation groups and many prominent and prosperous residents of the picturesque Hudson River Valley. Anniston is not much of a model city anymore. The EPA officials who set up an Anniston satellite office to deal with the PCB problem are now alarmed about widespread lead poisoning as well. The Army is building an incinerator here to burn 2,000 tons of deadly sarin and mustard gas. And the Anniston Star has been questioning Monsanto's past mercury releases. Officials at Solutia Inc., the name given to Monsanto's chemical operations after they were spun off into a separate company in 1997, acknowledge that Monsanto made mistakes.

Banking and Finance Law Essay

Joint account holders, case: Arden v Bank of New South Wales (1956) VLR 569 Combination of account, the bank’s right to combine accounts is dependant on the accounts being the same or closely similar. The right to combine accounts without express agreement: accounts must be held by customer in the same capacity, must not be an agreement or course of dealing with the customer which has negated the bank’s right to combine accounts, customer’s indebtedness must have been incurred to the bank as an banker and not in relation to other business carried on by the bank eg travel business. The main case of this rule is: Garnett v McKewan 1872. Knowing Receipt: Case: Thomson v Clydesdale Bank Ltd (1893) AC 282 APPLICATION Fantastic Landscapes is a customer of the Red Bank because it has accounts in this bank which are overdraft account with has a borrowing limit of $100000 accepted by Red Bank and another account has $20000 (Account No 2) Applying to the content of the contact, Fantastic Landscapes has signed an agreement form that is an express terms made between Red Bank and Fantastic Landscapes. The general terms and conditions included the following clause 12: upon receipt of each monthly overdraft account statement, the account holder shall read the statement and notify the bank of any errors contained in the statement within 15 days. Failure to notify the bank of any errors within that time will be treated as a breach of contract by the account holder entitling the bank to its remedies at law. Applying to the bank’s duty of confidentiality, the Red Bank recorded transactions between it and its customer (Fantastic Landscapes) and reported to its customer every 15 days as written in the general term. However, Red Bank did not complete its duty to question valid mandate because the cheques drawn by Minnie (one of the director of Fantastic Landscapes) within a period of 3 months are unusual drawn on Fantastic Landscapes’ overdraft account. When according to joint account holders, Ben actually is an innocent joint account holder, so he has a right to sue the Red Bank for the breach of contract. However, applying to the duty of customer in section duty to organize business, following cases: Lewes Sanitary Steam Laundry Co Ltd v Barclay Co Ltd (1906) 95 LT 444; and (6. 1) National Bank of New Zealand Ltd v Walpole and Patterson Ltd (1975) 2NZLR 7. The Red bank has an absolute advantage in this case because of the express term written in the contract Another director of Fantastic Landscapes, Ben has failed when sue Red Bank to recredit account which Minnie has stolen because he did not check overdraft account during 3 months, and in the contract with Red Bank has asked he to rea d and notify the bank of any errors contained in the statement within 15 days. Therefore, Ben or Fantastic Landscapes could not claim back $50000. When apply to combination of account, the Fantastic Landscapes has won in this lawsuit. The Red Bank has combined overdraft account and Account No 2 without any notice because they hear that this company has just lot a large landscaping contract and not working any more. Moreover, Red Bank has agreed Fantastic Landscapes to borrow maximum $100000, so they can not combine account without any notice to this company even though its overdraft account has reached to $100000. Therefore, Red Bank has to pay $10000 penalty fee for Fantastic Landscapes to the finance company. According to duty of the banker, the BLB (Big Lender Bank) does not have any duty to Fantastic Landscapes because in this case, its customer Minnie just is its client. Therefore, BLB do not have any duty to her company although she is a director in that company and she has committed fraud. Moreover, BLB do not care about how Minnie paid off her debt because Minnie did not withdraw money in the trust account. In addition, according to Thomson v Clydesdale Bank Ltd (1893) AC 282. BLB does not need to care about its customer detail particularly. Hence, the chances for Fantastic Landscapes win in this case in not to high than the case it won before when against Red Bank to reclaim $10000 penalty fee for finance company. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the Fantastic Landscapes has won in the case against Red Bank for compensation for $10000 penalty fee when they applied their case to combination of account. They won because Red Bank has committed the rule when combine two accounts without any notice to its customer. On the other hand, although the main fault belong to Minnie, the Fantastic Landscapes has failed in the case to recredit, its account when apply express term between it and the Red Bank. After all, the BLB do not have any duty to Fantastic Landscapes for compensation because when apply knowing receipt rule via Thomson case.

Bloodsucking Fiends: A Love Story Chapter 26

Chapter 26 At the End of the Night†¦ The Emperor worked a wooden match around the end of a Cuban cigar, drawing and checking until the tip glowed like revolution. â€Å"I don't agree with their ideology,† said the Emperor, â€Å"but we must give the Marxists their due – they roll a fine cigar.† Bummer snorted and growled at the cigar, then shook himself violently, spraying the Emperor and Lazarus with a fine wet mist. The Emperor scratched the Boston terrier behind the ears. â€Å"Settle down, little one, you needed a bath. If we vanquish our enemy, it will be through gallantry and courage, not the stench of our persons.† Shortly after sunset a member of the yacht club had given the Emperor the cigar and had invited him to use the club showers. Much to the chagrin of the club custodian, the Emperor shared his shower with Bummer and Lazarus, who left the drain hopelessly clogged with the fluff, stuff, and filth such as heroes are made of. Now they were passing the evening on the same dock on which they had slept, the Emperor savoring his cigar while the troops stood watch. â€Å"Where do we go from here? Must we wait for the fiend to kill again before we pick up the trail?† Bummer considered the questions, working the words over in his doggy brain looking for a  «food » word. Not finding it, he began to lick his balls to remove the annoying odor of deodorant soap. Once he achieved the desired balance (of both his ends smelling roughly the same), he padded around the dock marking the mooring posts against seabound invaders. With the borders of the realm firmly established, he went in search of something dead to roll in to remove the last evidence of the shower. The right smell was near, but it was coming in off the water. Bummer went toward the smell until he stood at the end of the dock. He saw a small white cloud bubbling out over the gunwale of a yacht moored a hundred yards away. Bummer barked to let the cloud know to stay away. â€Å"Settle down, little one,† said the Emperor. Lazarus shook some water out of his ears and joined Bummer at the end of the dock. The cloud was halfway between the yacht and the dock, pulsating and bubbling as it moved across the water toward them. Lazarus lowered his head and growled. Bummer added a high whine to the harmony. â€Å"What is it, men?† the Emperor asked. He put his cigar out on the sole of his shoe and secured the remains in his breast pocket before limping, stiff from sitting, to the end of the dock. The cloud was almost to the dock. Lazarus bared his teeth and snarled at it. Bummer backed away from the edge of the dock, not sure whether to bolt or stand his ground. The Emperor looked out over the water and saw the cloud. It was not wispy at the edges, but sharply defined, more like a solid mass of gel than water vapor. â€Å"It's just a bit of fog, men, don't†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He spotted a face forming in the cloud that changed as he watched to the shape of a giant hand, then bubbled into the head of a dog. â€Å"Although weather is not my specialty, I would venture to guess that that is no ordinary fog bank.† The cloud undulated into the shape of a huge viper that reared up, twenty feet over the water, as if preparing to strike. Bummer and Lazarus let go with a fusillade of barking. â€Å"Gents, let us away to the showers. I've left my sword by the sink.† The Emperor turned and ran down the dock, Bummer and Lazarus close at his heels. When he reached the clubhouse he turned to see the cloud creeping over the lip of the dock. He stood, watching transfixed, as the cloud began to condense into the solid form of a tall, dark man. The Animals began drifting into the store around midnight, and to Tommy's delight they all seemed at least as hung over as he was. Drew, tall, gaunt, and deadly earnest, had them sit on the register counters and wait for his medical diagnosis. He walked from man to man, looking at their tongues and the whites of their eyes. Then he walked toward the office and seemed to lose himself in concentration. After a moment he went into the office and came back with the truck manifest. Drew noted the number of cases, then nodded to himself and removed a bottle of pills from his shirt pocket and handed it to Tommy. â€Å"Take one and pass it down. Who drank the tequila?† Simon, who had pulled his black Stetson over his eyes, raised his hand with a slight moan. â€Å"You take two, Simon. They're Valium number fives.† â€Å"Housewife heroin,† said Simon. Drew announced, â€Å"Everyone drink a quart of Gatorade, a slug of Pepto, three aspirin, some B vitamins, and two Vivarin.† Barry, the balding scuba diver, said, â€Å"I don't trust that over-the-counter stuff.† â€Å"I'm not finished,† Drew said. From his shirt pocket he pulled an aluminum cigar tube, unscrewed the cap, and tipped it into his hand. A long, yellow paper cone slid out. He held it out to Tommy. It smelled like a cross between a skunk and a eucalyptus cough drop. Tommy raised an eyebrow to Drew. â€Å"What is it?† â€Å"Don't worry about it. It's recommended by the Jamaican Medical Association. Anybody got a light?† Simon pitched his Zippo to Drew, who handed it to Tommy. Tommy hesitated before lighting the joint and looked at Drew. â€Å"This is just pot, right? This isn't some weird designer kill-the-family-with-a-chain-saw-and-choke-to-death-on-your-own-vomit drug, right?† â€Å"Not if used as directed,† Drew said. â€Å"Oh. Okay.† Tommy sparked the Zippo, lit the joint, and took a deep hit. Holding in the smoke – his eyes watering, his face scrunched in gargoyle determination, his limbs contorted as if he had contracted a case of the instant creeping geeks – he offered the joint to Lash, the black business major. There was a thump on the front door, followed by an urgent pounding that rattled the windows. Tommy dropped the joint and coughed, expelling a blast of smoke and spittle in Lash's face. The Animals shouted and turned, not so much startled by the noise, but tortured by the assault on their collective hangover. Outside the double automatic doors the Emperor pounded on the frame with his wooden sword. The dogs jumped around his feet barking and leaping as if they had treed a raccoon on the roof of the store. Tommy, still gasping for breath, dug into his pocket for the store keys and made his way to the door. â€Å"It's okay. I know him.† â€Å"Everybody knows him,† Simon said. â€Å"Crazy old fuck.† Tommy turned the key and pulled the doors open. The Emperor fell into the store. Bummer and Lazarus leaped over their master and disappeared down an aisle. The Emperor thrashed around on the floor and Tommy had to step back to keep from having his shins whacked by the wooden sword. â€Å"Calm down,† Tommy said. â€Å"You're okay.† The Emperor climbed to his feet and grabbed Tommy by the shoulders. â€Å"We have to marshal our forces. The monster is at hand. Quickly now!† Tommy looked back at the Animals and grinned. â€Å"He's okay, really.† Then, to the Emperor, â€Å"Just slow down, okay. Can I get you something to eat?† â€Å"There's no time for that. We must take the battle to him.† Simon called, â€Å"Maybe Drew has something to mellow him out.† Drew had recovered the joint and was in the process of relighting it. Tommy closed and locked the door, then took the Emperor by the arm and led him toward the office. â€Å"See, Your Majesty, you're inside now. You're safe. Now let's go sit down and see if we can sort this out.† â€Å"Locked doors won't stop him. He can take the form of mist and pass through the smallest crack.† The Emperor addressed the Animals. â€Å"Arm yourself, while there is still time.† â€Å"Who?† Asked Lash. â€Å"Who's he talking about?† Tommy cleared his throat. â€Å"The Emperor thinks that there's a vampire stalking the City.† â€Å"You're shittin' me,† Barry said. â€Å"I've just seen him,† the Emperor said, â€Å"at the marina. He changed from a cloud of vapor to human form as I watched. He's not far behind me, either.† Tommy patted the old man's arm. â€Å"Don't be silly, Your Highness. Even if there were vampires, they can't turn into vapor.† â€Å"But I saw it.† â€Å"Look!† Tommy said. â€Å"You saw something else. I know for a fact that vampires can't change into vapor.† â€Å"You know that for a fact?† Simon drawled. Tommy looked at Simon, expecting to see the usual grin, but Simon was waiting for an answer. Tommy shook his head. â€Å"I'm trying to get things under control here, Simon. You want to give me a break?† â€Å"How do you know?† Simon insisted. â€Å"It was in a book I was reading. You remember, Simon, you read that one too.† Simon looked as if he had just been threatened, which he had. â€Å"Yeah, right,† he said, pushing his Stetson back down over his eyes and leaning back on the register. â€Å"Well, you ought to just call the loony-bin boys for your friend there.† â€Å"I'll take care of him,† Tommy said. â€Å"You guys get started on the truck.† He opened the office door and nudged the Emperor toward it. â€Å"What about the men?† asked the Emperor. â€Å"They're safe. Come on in and tell me about it.† â€Å"But the monster?† â€Å"If he wanted to kill me, I'd be dead already.† Tommy shut the office door behind them. Big hair, Jody thought. Big hair is the way to go with this outfit. After all these years of trying to tame my hair, all I had to do was dress like an upscale hooker and I would have been fine. She was walking up Geary Street, her fake Gucci bag of free cosmetics still in hand. There was a new club down here somewhere and she needed to dance, or at least show off a little. A panhandler wearing a cardboard sign that read, â€Å"I am Unemployed and Illiterate (a friend wrote this for me),† stopped her and tried to sell her a free weekly newspaper. Jody said, â€Å"I can pick that up anywhere. It's free.† â€Å"It is?† â€Å"Yes. They give it away in every store and cafe in town.† â€Å"I wondered why they were laying out there for the taking.† Jody was angry with herself for being pulled into this exchange. â€Å"It says ‘free' right there on the cover.† The bum pointed to the sign hanging around his neck and tried to look tragic. â€Å"Maybe you could give me quarter for it anyway.† Jody started to walk away. The bum followed along beside her. â€Å"There's a great article on recovery groups on page ten.† She looked at him. â€Å"Someone told me,† he said. Jody stopped. â€Å"I'll give you this if you'll leave me alone.† She held out the cosmetics bag. The bum acted as if he had to think about it. He looked her up and down, pausing at her cleavage before looking her in the eye. â€Å"Maybe we could work something out. You must be cold in that dress. I could warm you up.† â€Å"Normally,† Jody said, â€Å"if I met a guy who was unemployed and illiterate who hadn't bathed in a couple of weeks, I'd be standing in a puddle with excitement, but I'm sort of in a bad mood tonight, so take this bag and give me the fucking paper before I pop your little head like a zit.† She pushed the bag into his chest, knocking him back against the window of a closed camera store. The bum offered her the paper tentatively and she snatched it from his hand. He said, â€Å"You're a lesbian, aren't you?† Jody screamed at him: a high, explosive, unintelligible expulsion of pure inhuman frustration – a Hendrix high note sampled and sung by a billion suffering souls in Hell's own choir. The window of the camera shop shattered and fell in shards to the sidewalk. The store alarm wailed, paltry in comparison to Jody's scream. The bum covered his ears and ran away. â€Å"Cool,† Jody said, more than a bit satisfied with herself. She opened the paper and read as she walked up the street to the club. Outside the club Jody got in line with a crowd of well-dressed wannabees and resumed reading her paper, enjoying the stares of the men on line in her peripheral vision. The club was called 753. It seemed to Jody that all of the new, trendy clubs had eschewed names for numbers. Kurt and his broker buddies had been big fans of the number-named clubs, which made for Monday-morning recount conversations that sounded more like equations: â€Å"We went to Fourteen Ninety-Two and Ten Sixty-Six, then Jimmy drank ten Seven-Sevens at Nineteen Seventeen, went fifty-one fifty and got eighty-sixed.† Normally, that many numbers in succession would have had Kurt diving for his PC to establish trend lines and resistance levels. Jody glazed over at the mention of numbers, which would have made living with the broker a bit of an ordeal even if he hadn't been an asshole. She thought, I wonder if Kurt will be here. I hope so. I hope he's here with the little well-bred, breastless wonder. Oh, she won't care, but he'll die a thousand jealous deaths. Then she heard the alarm sounding down the street and thought, Maybe I should learn to channel some of this hostility. â€Å"You, in the LED!† said the doorman. Jody looked up from her paper. â€Å"Go on in,† the doorman said. As she walked past the other people on line she was careful to avoid eye contact. One single guy reached out and grabbed her arm. â€Å"Say I'm your date,† he begged. â€Å"I've been waiting for two hours.† â€Å"Hi, Kurt,† Jody said. â€Å"I didn't see you.† Kurt stepped back. â€Å"Oh. Oh my God. Jody?† She smiled. â€Å"How's your head?† He was trying to catch his breath. â€Å"Fine. It's fine. You look†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Thanks, Kurt. Good to see you again. I'd better get inside.† He clawed the air after her. â€Å"Could you say I'm your date?† She turned and looked at him as if she had found him in the back of the refrigerator with green growing on him. â€Å"I have been chosen, Kurt. You, on the other hand, are an untouchable. I don't think you'd be appropriate for the image I'm trying to project.† As she walked into the club she heard Kurt say to the next guy in line, â€Å"She's a lesbian, you know.† Jody thought, Yep, I've got to work on controlling my hostility. The theme of 753 was Old San Francisco; actually, Old San Francisco burning down, which is largely what Old San Francisco used to do. There was an antique hand-pump fire engine in the middle of the dance floor. Cellophane flames leaped from pseudowindows driven by turbine fans. Nozzles in the ceiling drizzled dry-ice smoke over a crowd of young professionals ar-rhythmically sweating in layers of casual cotton and wool. A flannel-clad grunge rocker here; a tie-dyed and dreadlocked Rastafarian there; some neo-hippies; a sprinkling of black-eyed, white-faced New Wave holdovers – looking alienated – contemplating the next body part to have pierced; a few harmless suburban homeboys – here to bust a move, def and phat, in three-hundred-dollar giant gel-filled, glow-in-the-dark, pneumatic, NBA-endorsed sneakers. The doorman had tried to make a mix, but with fashionable micro-brewery beer going for seven bucks a bottle, the crowd was bound to overbalance to the sid e of privilege and form a thick yuppie scum. Cocktail waitresses in fireman helmets served reservoirs of imported water and thanked people for not smoking. Jody slinked onto a barstool and opened her paper to avoid eye contact with a droopy-eyed drunk on the next stool. It didn't work. † ‘Scuse me, I couldn't help noticing that you were sitting down. I'm sitting down too. Small world, huh?† Jody looked up briefly and smiled. Mistake. â€Å"Can I buy you a drink?† the drunk asked. â€Å"Thanks, I don't drink,† she said, thinking, Why did I come here? What did I hope to accomplish? â€Å"It's my hair, isn't it?† Jody looked at the guy. He was about her age and balding, not quite finished with what looked like a bad hair-transplant job. His scalp looked as if it had been strafed with a machine gun full of plugs. She felt bad for him. â€Å"No, I really don't drink.† â€Å"How about a mineral water?† â€Å"Thanks. I don't drink anything.† From the stool behind her a man's voice. â€Å"She'll drink this.† She turned to see a glass filled with a thick, red-black liquid being pushed in front of her by a bone-white hand. The index and middle finger seemed a little too short. â€Å"They're still growing back,† the vampire said. Jody recoiled from him so hard she nearly went over backward on her barstool. The vampire caught her arm and steadied her. â€Å"Hey, buddy,† said Hair Plugs, â€Å"hands off.† The vampire let go of Jody's arm, reached across to put his hand on Hair Plugs's shoulder, and held him fast to his seat. The drunk's eyes went wide. The vampire smiled. â€Å"She'll rip out your throat and drink your blood as you die. Is that what you want?† Hair Plugs shook his head violently. â€Å"No, I already have an ex-wife.† The vampire released him. â€Å"Go away.† Hair Plugs slid off the stool and ran off into the crowd on the dance floor. Jody leaped to her feet and started to follow him. The vampire caught her arm and wheeled her around. â€Å"Don't,† he said. Jody caught his wrist and began to squeeze. A human arm would have been reduced to mush. The vampire grinned. Jody locked eyes with him. â€Å"Let go.† â€Å"Sit,† he said. â€Å"Murderer.† The vampire threw his head back and laughed. The bartender, a burly jock type, looked up, then looked away. Just another loud drunk. â€Å"I can take you,† Jody said, not really believing it. She wanted to break loose and run. The vampire, still smiling, said, â€Å"It would make an interesting news story, wouldn't it? ‘Pale Couple Destroys Club in Domestic Disagreement. Shall we?† Jody let go of his wrist but stayed locked on his eyes. They were black, showing no iris. â€Å"What do you want?† The vampire broke the stare and shook his head. â€Å"Little fledgling, I want your company, of course. Now sit.† Jody climbed back onto the stool and stared into the glass before her. â€Å"That's better. It's almost over, you know. I didn't think you would last this long, but alas, it must come to an end. The game has become a bit too public. You have to break from the cattle now. They don't understand you. You are not one of them anymore. You are their enemy. You know it, don't you? You've known it since your first kill. Even your little pet knows it.† Jody started to shake. â€Å"How did you get into the loft to get Tommy's book?† The vampire grinned again. â€Å"One develops certain talents over time. You're still young, you wouldn't understand.† Part of Jody wanted to slam her fist into his face and run, yet another part wanted answers to all the questions that had been running through her mind since the night she was changed. â€Å"Why me? Why did you do this to me?† The vampire stood up and patted her on the shoulder. â€Å"It's almost over. The sadness of having a pet is that they always die on you. At the end of the night, you are alone. You'll know that feeling very soon. Drink up.† He turned and walked away. Jody watched him leave, relieved that he was gone, but at the same time disappointed. There were so many questions. She picked up the glass, smelled the liquid, and nearly gagged. The bartender snickered. â€Å"I never had an order for a double of straight grenadine before. Can I get you something else?† â€Å"No, I've got to go catch him.† She picked up her paper, got up, ran up the steps and out of the club. She found that if she stayed on the balls of her feet, she could actually run in the high-heeled pumps. Chalk one up for vampire strength, she thought. She grabbed the doorman by the shoulder and swung him around. â€Å"Did you see a thin, pale guy in black just leave?† â€Å"That way.† The doorman pointed east on Geary. â€Å"He was walking.† â€Å"Thanks,† Jody tossed over her shoulder as she took to the sidewalk, waiting to break into a run until she was out of sight from the club. She ran a block before taking off the pumps and carrying them. The street was empty; only the buzz of wires and the soft padding of her feet on the sidewalk broke the silence. She'd run ten blocks when she spotted him, a block away, leaning against a lamppost. He turned and looked at her as she pulled up. â€Å"So, fledgling, what are you going to do when you catch me?† he asked in a soft voice, knowing she would hear. â€Å"Kill me? Break off a signpost and drive it though my heart? Rip my head from my shoulders and play puppet with it while my body flops around on the sidewalk?† The vampire pantomimed flopping, rolled his eyes, and grinned. Jody said nothing. She didn't know what she was going to do. She hadn't thought about it. â€Å"No,† she said. â€Å"How can I stop you from killing Tommy?† â€Å"They always betray you, you know. It's in their nature.† â€Å"What if I leave? Don't tell him where I'm going?† â€Å"He knows we exist. We have to hide, fledgling. Always. Completely.† Jody felt strangely calm. Perhaps it was hearing the â€Å"we.† Maybe it was talking in a normal voice to someone a block away. Whatever it was, she wasn't afraid, not for herself, anyway. She said, â€Å"If we have to hide, why all the killings?† The vampire laughed again. â€Å"Did you ever have a cat bring you a bird it had killed?† â€Å"Why?† â€Å"Presents, fledgling. Now if you are going to kill me, please do. If not, go play with your pet while you can.† He turned and walked away. â€Å"Wait!† Jody called. â€Å"Did you pull me through the basement window?† â€Å"No,† the vampire said without looking back. â€Å"I am not interested in saving you. And if you follow me, you will find out exactly how a vampire can be killed.† Gotcha, asshole, Jody thought. He had saved her.

Thomas Jefferson report card

The Barbara Pirates are a great example as to how Jefferson dealt with problems with foreign people. The pirates would take crew members from ships and demand payment on behalf of America, after making the decision to put an end to the payments to the pirates Jefferson sent a naval to punish them; although semi contradicting his devotion to peace and economy. Later on after in 181 5 Stephen Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean to where a treaty renouncing both raids and tribute were signed.Although It wasn't something totally eliminating the racketeers from being wicked it still was a success on behalf of Jefferson; he was able to lead the world toward a path of free seas and peace for all nations. Jefferson so far was able to fulfill his promises to keep peace and friendship with other nations. The relations between the new United States and European nations were pleasant and the Barbara Pirates had compelled admiration for the American flag. Intense admiration should be given to J efferson for he was able to handle the impressments of American seaman In an appropriate manner.He was able to keep calm and not go to war with Britain even though there was a vast amount of anger In the United States towards the situation. Instead of going Into something more drastic such as war, Jefferson simply demanded the British to stay out of the U. G's waters and for an apology. Lastly In relation to foreign relations, In 1803 war between France and Britain was renewed. As a war tactic each nation attempted to affect their opponent's trade using neutral nations such as the United States.Jefferson saw this and In an attempt to keep peace between the United States and other nations, there was the Embargo Act which cut off the United States trade In hopes of getting Britain and Napoleon Into terms. (Embargo Act of 1802) Jefferson was unsuccessful when It came to the Embargo act; neither the French nor Britain needed the American trade as much as American trade needed them there fore not making a difference when It came to scaring the nations. What this would have done Instead of scaring Napoleon and Britain out of their conflict was, demolish theAmerican commerce which was what It was trying to protect. Jefferson as a president managed to fulfill a lot of his promises made In his Inaugural address regarding keeping peace and honest friendships with other nations. He was very successful and although he had a failure with the Embargo Act he still attempted to make a change therefore his grade of a B Is accurate due to his successful attempts and failure of the Embargo Act. Thomas Jefferson report card By watermelon United States at peace with nations in Europe during his first term, as wealth and tooth raids and tribute were signed.Although it wasn't something totally eliminating impressments of American seaman in an appropriate manner. He was able to keep calm and not go to war with Britain even though there was a vast amount of anger in the United States t owards the situation. Instead of going into something more waters and for an apology. Lastly in relation to foreign relations, in 1803 war Jefferson saw this and in an attempt to keep peace between the United States and other nations, there was the Embargo Act which cut off the United States trade in popes of getting Britain and Napoleon into terms. Embargo Act of 1802).

Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism

ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION APPROACHES AND THEIR APPLICATION Yona Shamir Israel Center for Negotiation and Mediation (ICNM), Israel (Assisted by Ran Kutner) SC-2003/WS/43 The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This article is a contribution from UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme to the World Water Assessment Programme. It was prepared within the framework of the joint UNESCO–Green Cross International project entitled â€Å"From Potential Conflict to Co-o peration Potential (PCCP): Water for Peace,† and was made possible by the generous financial assistance of the Japanese government.CONTENTS Summary 1. Introduction and Overview 2. The ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) Spectrum 3. Negotiation: Principles and Procedures 3. 1. Competitive and Integrative Models 3. 2. Principles 3. 3. Skills 3. 4. Cultural and Identity Aspects 3. 5. Psychological Aspects 3. 5. 1. Psychological Traps 3. 6. International Negotiation 3. 7. Negotiations Over Water 3. 7. 1. International Water Negotiations/Conflicts 3. 7. 2. Intra-national Water Negotiations/Disputes 3. 8. Treaties 4. Mediation 4. 1. The Advantages of Mediation 4. 2. Positive Results of Mediation 4. 3. The Role of the Mediator 4. . Skills and Tools of a Good Mediator 4. 5. The Problems that the Mediator Attempts to Resolve 4. 6. Techniques and Strategies 4. 7. Models and Approaches to Mediation 4. 8. Controversial Issues in Mediation 4. 9. Psychological Issues 4. 10. Ethical Code, I ssues, and Dilemmas 4. 11. International Mediation 4. 11. 1. Mediation in International Water Conflicts 5. Consensus Building: Principles, and Procedures 5. 1. Principles and Procedures 6. Conclusion 7. ADR Basics: Definitions Bibliography 1 2 4 6 6 7 10 12 13 14 16 18 18 21 22 23 24 25 25 26 26 26 27 29 29 30 31 31 33 33 36 37 40ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION APPROACHES AND THEIR APPLICATION Alternative Dispute Resolution comprises various approaches for resolving disputes in a non-confrontational way, ranging from negotiation between the two parties, a multiparty negotiation, through mediation, consensus building, to arbitration and adjudication The article introduces the key skills required, with particular attention to their important role in the process of negotiation and mediation, with examples of their application in national and international water conflicts. Conflict is endemic to human society, among individuals and groups, and it is important to manage it.We find stories in the Bible, in the Islamic culture, among Native Americans, First Nations in Canada, and many other traditions that describe processes that have been used from the earliest times to find peaceful solutions to various disputes, and much can be learned from the past. In recent decades, the various conflict resolution approaches have become a widely accepted field both of academic study and of practice, with official and/or legislative functions in many countries. In international relations, they plays an increasing role in containing, managing and resolving potential sources of conflict.The article reviews its complex development. While conflict can be dangerous, it also carries the possibility of producing creative cooperation in a win–win solution. The key to this is for participants to engage as joint problem solvers, seeking to resolve the dispute, and to try and â€Å"enlarge the pie† rather than acting as adversaries and aggravating the situation. A mediator can play a valuable role in this process, facilitate a negotiation process which has come to a dead end, helping the parties concerned to focus on their essential interests rather than defend (or attack) fixed positions.The principles and procedures of consensus building are dealt with in some detail. The article outlines the principles of negotiation, based on interests and needs of the parties, the use of proper communication, and maintenance of a working relationship as an essential component for reaching a durable agreement. It lists and considers the essential skills needed by negotiators and mediators, and points the different cultural expectations (national, regional, religious, or professional) and the psychological aspects that affect perceptions and communications.It outlines a range of strategies for and approaches to mediation, and the ethical problems that may arise. 1 1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR, sometimes also called â€Å"Appropriat e Dispute Resolution†) is a general term, used to define a set of approaches and techniques aimed at resolving disputes in a non-confrontational way. It covers a broad spectrum of approaches, from party-to-party engagement in negotiations as the most direct way to reach a mutually accepted resolution, to arbitration and adjudication at the other end, where an external party imposes a solution.Somewhere along the axis of ADR approaches between these two extremes lies â€Å"mediation,† a process by which a third party aids the disputants to reach a mutually agreed solution. This article introduces the key concepts, principles and skills of ADR in a generic form with examples of how they might be applied in the context of water conflicts. The glossary contains definitions of terms used, and readers are advised to familiarize themselves with them. Conflicts have existed in all cultures, religions, and societies since time immemorial, as long as humans have walked the earth. In fact, they also exist in the animal kingdom. Philosophies and procedures for dealing with conflicts have been part of the human heritage, differing between cultures and societies. Nations, groups, and individuals have tried throughout history to manage conflicts in order to minimize the negative and undesirable effects that they may pose. Conflicts can develop in any situation where people interact, in every situation where two or more persons, or groups of people, perceive that their interests are opposing, and that these interests cannot be met to the satisfaction of all the parties involved.Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one must learn to manage them, to deal with them in a way that will prevent escalation and destruction, and come up with innovative and creative ideas to resolve them. Dealing with conflicts – â€Å"conflict management,† or â€Å"conflict resolution† as it has come to be called in professional circles – is as old as humanity itself. Stories of handling conflicts and the art of managing them are told at length throughout the history of every nation and ethnic group who share the same history. Conflicts have been recorded from the very early days of humankind.We find in The Bible and similar religious and historical documents in different cultures an account of conflicts that were resolved by various processes, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication. We also find accounts of various types of negotiations: between animals and humans, between two persons, between an individual and a group, between two groups, and between humans and God. The first negotiation in The Bible was between the snake and Eve, over the apple in the Garden of Eden. But not all conflicts in religious scriptures have been resolved by alternative/appropriate dispute resolution (ADR).One that was resolved by force and violence is the story of Cain and Abel. In The Bible we find among many s tories of conflicts and their resolution, the story of Abraham and Lot negotiating, where Abraham, in order to avoid a fight, offers Lot a deal that Lot cannot refuse. Negotiation was conducted not only between people, but also between humans and God. Abraham negotiated with God over the fate of the people of Sodom and Gomorra. God also acted as a mediator between Abraham and Sara when she wanted Abraham to expel Hagar and her son.In the Muslim tradition we find the story of Muhammad who negotiated with God over the number of times that the followers will pray. Muhammad managed to reduce the number from the initial fifty times a day down to five, using as his main argument the necessity to leave enough time for people to do things other than pray. Throughout history, individuals and groups used a variety of ways to resolve their disputes, trying to reach a resolution acceptable to all parties. There is a 2 common belief in all cultures that it is best to resolve disputes and to reac h an agreed end to them, because conflict is a destructive force. In the wentieth century many reached the understanding that disputes are normal in human society, and not necessarily destructive, and that if they do not get out of hand they may have within them a potential for growth, maturity, and social changes, an opportunity for new ways of thinking and new experiences. Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one should learn to manage them: to deal with them in a way that prevents escalation and destruction, and arrives at new, innovative, and creative ideas to resolve them. Much can be learned about the different ways in which conflicts have been prevented in the past.In older societies, resolving disputes was considered a unique ability reserved for the wise and the elders of the community or for religious leaders. More recently, conflict prevention has become a primary focus of interest for everyone, and this has resulted in an ever-expanding field of s tudy and practice. The field of conflict resolution gained momentum in the last three decades of the twentieth century. It has developed into a widely accepted field of study, where skills and strategies are being taught, and changes in philosophical attitudes occur through training and enhanced self-awareness.The increasing academic activity and practical training initiatives have generated a vast and expanding body of research and publications. The field is characterized by diversity and complexity. It is diverse because conflicts exist in every facet of individual and social life: between business partners, employers and employees, among employees, between trading partners, among neighbors, between parents and their children, husbands and wives, an individual and society, and between countries.The field of â€Å"conflict resolution† has matured as a multidisciplinary field involving psychology, sociology, social studies, law, business, anthropology, gender studies, politic al sciences, and international relations. The discipline is complex because it deals with conflicts at different stages of their existence, and also because it is a mix of theory and practice, and of art and science, as Howard Raiffa demonstrated so brilliantly in his book The Art and Science of Negotiation (1982). The â€Å"science† is the systematic analysis of problem solving, and the †art† is the skills, personal abilities, and wisdom.Some conflicts may not be resolved easily, and can last many years. Sometimes these conflicts persist in spite of the fact that they cause heavy losses of resources, and even human life. According to a study at Stanford University (Arrow et al. , 1995) there are three categories of barriers to resolving conflicts: ? ? ? Tactical and strategic barriers; these stem from the parties’ efforts to maximize short or long term gains. Psychological barriers; these stem from differences in social identity, needs, fear, interpretatio n, values, and perceptions of one another.Organizational, institutional and structural barriers; these can disrupt the transfer of information, and prevent leaders from reaching decisions that are in the interests of the parties in dispute. A conflict may store within it the potential for a future major dispute, but at the same time it also contains the possibility of future creative cooperation, provided the parties seek what is called the â€Å"win–win solution. † To accomplish this, one must learn to negotiate in a manner that is less competitive and adversarial, thereby invoking the potential for cooperation.By working together as â€Å"joint problem solvers† seeking joint solutions and not working against one another, the participants can â€Å"enlarge the pie† that is to be 3 divided. This can be done either by negotiation, or with the help of an impartial third party who will act as mediator. Third-party intervention is used when a negotiation reac hes an impasse. It is used to restore belief in the possibility of a beneficial resolution for the parties, future dialogue, and restored relationships, while leaving the control over the decisions with the parties.President Carter acted as a mediator between President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Begin of Israel. Former US Senator George Mitchell acted as a mediator in Northern Ireland. An outside third party, whether a person (Archbishop Desmond Tutu), a group of people, a representative of a state (Henry Kissinger), or an international organization (The Vatican, The UN) can act as a mediator, in an attempt to help the parties reach an understanding, and an agreed solution to the conflict.A third party, a neutral, can also act as an arbitrator, hear the parties’ arguments and reach a decision which can be binding, or non-binding according to the agreement made beforehand. A dispute between Israel and Egypt over the location of the border between the two countries in th e Gulf of the Red Sea was settled in favor of Egypt by an international arbitration panel, on September 29 1988. Israel had to return the town of Taba, a resort town near Eilat, to Egypt as a result of the arbitration.Adjudication is another method that can be used as an alternative in the international arena (The International Court in The Hague) and in the national local system. The courts have the ability to enforce the law in the case of a failure of the parties to reach agreement through negotiation or mediation. There is a law, and a way to enforce it without the consent of the parties. In international disputes, where states are involved, when problems arise due to opposing interests, such as security and/or resources, an outside enforcer cannot act where it is not acceptable to one or more of the parties involved.Ruling by the International Court can end the conflict only if the two countries agree to abide by its ruling. Conflict prevention, de-escalation, management, and r esolution can all be applied to conflicts involving water. The choice of the applicable process will depend on the particular circumstances and context of the water conflict. We will examine each of these key processes and than review their potential role in water conflicts. 2. THE ADR (ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION) SPECTRUMOn the spectrum between an agreement reached by the parties by direct negotiation, based on mutual understanding, and a binding decision rendered by a third party’s authority in a procedure of adjudication, there are many other ways of dealing with disputes. These options and possibilities create â€Å"a menu† of alternative or appropriate dispute resolution (ADR) that parties may choose to use, with the intent of removing a potential source of conflict, preventing its escalation into a dispute, and finding the way back to a constructive cooperative and a potentially productive future working relationship.The ADR â€Å"movement† started in the United States in the 1970s in response to the need to find more efficient and effective alternatives to litigation. Today, ADR is 4 flourishing throughout the world because it has proven itself, in multiple ways, to be a better way to resolve disputes. The search for efficient and better ways to resolve disputes, and the art of managing conflicts, are as old as humanity itself, yet it has only been within the last thirty years or so that ADR as a movement has begun to be embraced enthusiastically by the legal system.More recently, ADR has become institutionalized as part of many court systems and system for justice as a whole throughout the world. The first ADR method to gain acceptance was arbitration, which shared many of its practices and procedures with the judicial system, including the judge (or arbitrator) deciding the outcome of the dispute. ADR has matured and developed, and mediation is being received as a preferred alternative and has become widely accepted as a proce ss providing more flexibility and less procedural complexity.The US Federal Civil Rights Act (1964) led to the formation of the CRS (Community Relations Service in the US Department of Justice), which was mandated to help â€Å"communities and persons therein in resolving disputes, disagreements, or difficulties relating to discriminatory practices based on race, color, or national origin† (Moore, 1996). â€Å"Mediators† were asked to assist in resolving disputes of any sort, and not only to deal with issues of discrimination (Goldberg et al. , 1992).The US federal government funded Neighborhood Justice Centers (NJC), provide free or low-cost mediation services. Throughout the United States and other countries, the courts became involved in mediation, following Professor Frank Sander’s (Harvard University) vision of a courthouse that would become a dispute resolution center – a â€Å"multi-door courthouse† – where each case would be referred to a process most appropriate to it. The NJC’s became part of a city-based, court-based, or district attorney-based alternative dispute resolution service.The American Bar Association took a proactive role in the process and created CPR – The Center for Public Resources center – which provides ADR services. Following an act of Congress (1990), federal agencies are obligated to use mediation in certain civil cases before going to court. Many states passed a law requiring mandatory mediation. In the private sector, many large US and multinational companies signed a mediation pledge, according to which they use mediation before going to court. Several countries are experiencing similar growth while continuing to develop new and creative ADR processes and applications.Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom have become pioneers in the field. In the United Kingdom, the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS) was set up in 1974 to deal wi th industrial disputes, and at the end of the 1980s commercial mediation services became available, corresponding to the Lord Chancellor’s statement in a television interview, â€Å"Mediation and other methods of resolving disputes earlier, without going to court, produce satisfactory results to both sides are, I think, very much to be encouraged† (Acland, 1990).The ADR movement has been gaining popularity, and a movement that started as an answer to needs of the judicial system, has generated interest in a variety of fields (such as education, society, environment, international, and gender concerns). In the 1980s, the US National Association of Mediation in Education (NAME) was founded, and a large variety of ADR programs, including negotiation, problem solving, and mediation was introduced in schools.A variety of skills and techniques are taught: communication skills, different approaches of managing conflicts effectively, tracing needs and real interests, moving fr om positions to interests, how to deal with intense emotions, re-framing, open questions, and so on. The expansion of these programs and practices in education is becoming increasingly widespread. In 1997, there were over 8,500 school-based 5 conflict resolution programs in the United States, taught in over 86,000 public schools.Alongside the search for ways to solve or manage diversities that turn into disputes and help people manage/solve existing disputes, advocates of ADR emphasize the need to develop and use the skills resulting from diversity that can help to prevent the escalation of disputes; this can be done by using joint problem solving in conflict situations, in order to enhance cooperation for the improvement of future relations. 3. NEGOTIATION: PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES Goldberg, Sander, and Rogers in Dispute Resolution: Negotiation, Mediation, and Other Processes (1992) define negotiation as â€Å"communication for the purpose of persuasion. Negotiation is a process in which parties to a dispute discuss possible outcomes directly with each other. Parties exchange proposals and demands, make arguments, and continue the discussion until a solution is reached, or an impasse declared. In negotiations there are three approaches to resolving the dispute, each with a different orientation and focus – interest-based, rights-based, and power-based – and they can result in different outcomes (Ury et al. , 1993). INTEREST-BASED NEGOTIATION This approach shifts the focus of the discussion from positions to interests.Because there are many interests underlying any position, a discussion based on interests opens up a range of possibilities and creative options, whereas positions very often cannot be reconciled and may therefore lead to a dead end. The dialogue on interest should be transparent, in order for the parties to arrive at an agreement that will satisfy the needs and interests of the parties. While interest-based negotiations have the potential of leading to the best outcomes, the parties may not adopt it, and therefore we often find that negotiations are â€Å"rights-based† or â€Å"power-based. † RIGHTS-BASED NEGOTIATIONWhen negotiations between parties fail, the parties may then attempt to resort to what they consider to be their rights. This means appealing to the court (local, national, or international) and will result in a legal process in which the law is the dominant feature. POWER-BASED NEGOTIATION Resorting to threat or even violence as a way of communication for the purpose of persuasion is called power-based negotiation (for example, the posture of the Americans in the Cuban missile crisis). Rights-based and power-based approaches are used at times when parties cannot or are not willing to resolve their issues through interest-based negotiation. . 1. Competitive and Integrative Models Negotiations are characterized by polarity between two extremes: ? ? Competition – Cooperation O pposing interests – Common interests Competition and opposing interests lead to a requirement by the parties to divide the assets or resources under dispute. They lead to â€Å"dividing the pie† or â€Å"claiming value,† 6 in other words a â€Å"zero-sum game. † On the other hand, when negotiations are based on cooperation and identification of common interests, this can lead to seeking opportunities for â€Å"increasing the pie† (which is also called â€Å"creating value†).When negotiations are based on common interests, cooperation, and joint problem solving, this is called the â€Å"integrative or collaborative model. † This model was developed at PON (the Project On Negotiation) at Harvard University in the early 1980s. It is useful for parties to negotiate over a number of issues or resources, since they can try to create value and maximize benefits by trade offs between them. This is because the order of priority among these iss ues for one party may differ from that of the other and provide an opportunity for exchanges.Therefore, the parties find ways to increase gains through creativity, originality, and linkage between issues to enlarge the overall pie, thereby creating value. To provide an historical example of the difference between positions and interests, consider the issue of the Sinai in the dealings between President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menahem Begin of Israel, in the wake of the 1967 Six Day War. Each leader claimed that the territory of the Sinai, taken over by Israel in the war, belonged to his nation. This was their stated position.President Jimmy Carter, acting as mediator, interrogated the two leaders as to their interests, and identified them as follows: Egypt wanted sovereignty over the territory, in line with the national position that Egypt would not yield control over the territory which it considered to be its own; Israel’s interest was to have guarantees of security on its border with Egypt, in view of the threat it had been facing on this border previously. President Carter then proposed that the Sinai would be returned to sovereign Egyptian rule, but would remain a demilitarized zone.This creative solution satisfied the interests of both sides, and was therefore agreed. The principles of the interest-based model can be used in any type of negotiations: from buying a car to resolving a conflict between the United States and Mexico over water, and from buying a company to dealing with the selection of a site for building a wastewater treatment plant. Negotiation based on â€Å"rights† or â€Å"power† fall under the â€Å"adversarial, distributive, or competitive model,† where the parties try to get the best deal for themselves at a cost to the others. A gain for one side means a loss for the other.Living in a society in which competition is part of the daily experience, we tend to think of competition as the only w ay to reach our goals. Competition is almost always at the expense of someone else. In the â€Å"conventional way,† a negotiation is â€Å"zero-sum game† – whatever one side wins the other side loses. Both of the parties assume that it would be best to ensure that they end the negotiation at the positive side of the equation. 3. 2. Principles â€Å"The reason to negotiate is to produce something better than the results that you can obtain without negotiation† (Fisher et al. 1991). The goal is to reach an agreement that is acceptable to all parties, to which they remain committed, and which they indeed implement. This is the essence of interest-based negotiations, which has the following principles: 7 INTERESTS–NEEDS Interests are needs (food, shelter, security, and so on), desires, aspirations, fears, hopes, and concerns. Positions are what we want and demand. The interests are the reasons behind the position. In negotiating on the basis of interes ts, parties will need to: ? ? ? distinguish between positions and interests move from positions to interests list all the interests according to priority think of positions as only one of many solutions to the problem. ALTERNATIVES Alternatives are those actions that one can take outside the negotiations, alone or possibly with a third partner, but without the party with whom one negotiates. The alternative that yields the best outcome for you is called the BATNA (Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement). The BATNA is the â€Å"best alternative to a negotiated agreement. If any of your alternatives without negotiation is better than the deal on the negotiating table, you will obviously go to the best alternative. If however the deal on the table is better than any of your alternatives, it will be your BATNA. It is important to make sure that the alternatives are indeed realistic, and try to improve your BATNA, because the BATNA influences the way in which you conduct the negotia tions. Having a BATNA provides us with the ability to negotiate effectively, and provide the answers to the following: ? ? ?What are our alternatives if this negotiation reaches a dead end? Do we have an alternative at all if the negotiations fail? Which agreement do we consider (the one which is at least as good as our BATNA)? OPTIONS This is the range of outcomes that the parties agree to consider during the negotiations. Options are outcomes that can enlarge the pie and create value with little or no extra cost to the parties. In developing the options use the following criteria: ? ? ? Use brain storming among the parties to generate a list of options.Look to the interests in order to generate a broad range of options to choose from. Include options that will answer both parties’ needs and interests. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA Objective standards and criteria can be used in the negotiations to enable both parties to perceive the process as fair and legitimate. Objective standa rds and criteria include: ? ? ? ? ? market value of an asset or a resource the law regarding the matter being discussed precedents opinion of an expert priority of human water consumption over other users (in water issues). 8 COMMUNICATIONThis refers to all the means by which the parties communicate with each another, including spoken words, level and tone of speech, body language, and any other means that parties use to signal to one another. This is important because part of the message is not just the words, but also in the manner in which it is delivered. To consider these aspects one must: ? ? be attentive to all signals of communication speak clearly and exercise â€Å"active listening† (discussed in Section 3. 3: Skills). RELATIONSHIP This refers to the interpersonal and intergroup dynamics between all the parties to the negotiation.Proper consideration of these elements requires that one: ? ? Separate the people from the substance; that is, do not allow oneself to bec ome personal, but stick to the matters being discussed. Consider that there are differences in the way in which people in other cultures value interpersonal relationships as a precondition to holding negotiations. AGREEMENT AND COMMITMENT An agreement should be specific, realistic, operational, clear, and understood by all parties. It should be specific as to who will do what, how, when, and where. In the agreement the parties should commit to what they have agreed.Before signing an agreement one should ask: ? ? ? ? ? Does the agreement anticipate future contingencies, to avoid surprises and disappointments that may result in motivation not to uphold it? Do we have the authority to sign this agreement? Does the other side have the authority to sign this agreement? Do we want a tentative agreement, subject to final approval? Do we want an interim agreement that covers only part of the issues and leaves the rest for a further and final agreement? In interest-based negotiation one shou ld strive to reach an agreement that will satisfy: ? all or most of our interests, and the other parties’ interests in a way that will be acceptable to them. One needs to ensure that the other parties’ interests are met to a degree that will satisfy their interests because their interests are inextricably tied to one’s own and both needs have to be met in order for the agreement to hold. Be cognizant of parties that are absent from the negotiations who will be affected by them or have an influence on their outcome. When Israel signed the contract with the Chinese on the Falcon aircraft, the agreement was satisfactory to both parties, the Israelis and the Chinese.Israel just forgot the third party – the United States – which was not interested in selling know how to the Chinese and objected to the deal. As a result, the agreement fell through, and Israel had to compensate the Chinese for not fulfilling the agreement. 9 3. 3. Skills COMMUNICATION SKI LLS: ACTIVE LISTENING This is one of the most important and difficult skills for a negotiator and a mediator. Active listening as a skill and technique are taught to, and applied by, negotiators and mediators to enhance their effectiveness during the process.Active listening means stopping our inner voices, and truly listening to the other person. Listening will enable you to hear important information, and learn a great deal about the other party. By listening attentively you: ? ? ? ? ? Show interest in what the other party has to say. Show understanding to the way they feel, their positions and underlying issues, hidden agendas, demands, and priorities (showing understanding does not mean that you agree with what was said). Acknowledge that people like to be listened to, and when you listen, you create a positive atmosphere.Hope it may clarify many issues; make you understand the other side’s point of view, and show respect to the other party’s needs, hopes, and fear s. Hope it may help to improve the relationship, and break the cycle of arguments. COMMUNICATION SKILLS: TALKING CLEARLY AND PRECISELY Effective negotiation is also making sure that whatever you said was understood in the way that you meant it to be. You have to speak clearly, phrase your sentences carefully, make sure that the other party listens to you, and check with the other party to make sure that they understood you correctly.Send messages that are comprehensive, and explain where you are coming from, your needs, hopes, and fears. While talking you have to assess if the other party is listening, and how they hear/receive your message. RE-FRAMING POSITIONS AS INTERESTS Re-framing is a way of giving feedback, and showing that you listened and understood what the other party said. It is restating and capturing the essence of what the other party said. One removes the negative tones, and translates the statements of positions into statements of interests and needs. When we start negotiating we have to identify the issues at the table.The issues have to be defined in a neutral and acceptable way to all, and not include any suggestions of the outcome, or judgment of any kind. Typically, parties start the negotiation process by stating their position, and their conclusion of what to do based on it. If the one party opens the negotiation in this manner, that is, by stating a position, it is very helpful to re-frame it as an interest. It helps the parties to identify their interests, and move from position to interests. The supplier to buyer at the municipality: â€Å"I am not going to supply you another pencil before I see some payment for my last shipment. The buyer: â€Å"So, you need a business that can pay you regularly for your supplies. † UNDERSTANDING AND PERCEPTION The negotiation process is influenced by our perceptions and our interpretation of reality. Perceptions are influenced by personal experience, emotional state of mind, and cultural ba ckground. 10 Perception, as shown in Akira Kurosawa’s film Rashomon (1951), varies from one individual to another; we know that four different people who witnessed the same murder may give four totally different accounts of what happened.The negotiator and mediator have to keep eye contact, listen carefully, and make sure that they understood exactly what the other party said. It is important to reframe what was said in order to make sure that what was said was understood and was indeed what was meant. Make sure that what was said was understood correctly, and that the other party knows you have understood. â€Å"Let me make sure that I understood what you said, when you said that we should go ahead with our plans: does it mean that you will be a full partner, or just our contractor? When you negotiate in India and the other party nods his head up and down, does it mean â€Å"yes†? In India it means â€Å"No. † OPEN QUESTIONS Questions are an essential skill fo r the negotiator and mediator. When asking a closed question, we get â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† for an answer. Often these types of questions are also leading questions â€Å"Would you agree that . . . † â€Å"Didn’t you think that it was unfair . . . † The closed questions, and the leading ones, do not provide us with the essential information we need at the negotiating table and they tend to close down the discussion. Do you want to buy this property? † will provide us only with a â€Å"yes–no† answer, which does not include all the important information regarding the intention/ability of the buyer. â€Å"What are the problems that concern you? † is a question which will provide us with important information as to how they feel about it, what are their concerns, their plans, and so on. â€Å"How do you view the offer Mr. Brown has just made? † is an open-ended question, while â€Å"Do you like Mr. Brown’s of fer? † is a closed question.Open-ended questions such as: â€Å"What are in your opinion the possible advantages and disadvantages regarding his offer? † or â€Å"What would you need to clarify prior to your counter-offer? † provide us with important information that can help the process rather than bring it to a dead end. You have to be aware of your prejudices, values, and biases when you ask the questions, so that if you have any they will not be evident from your tone or body language. SEPARATE THE PEOPLE FROM THE PROBLEM It is important to understand the other party’s point of view, needs, interests, and concerns.One does not have to agree with the other point of view, just understand that it is legitimate to have a different point of view, needs, and concerns. One has to separate the people from the problem. Removing the person usually does not remove or solve the problem. However, trying to separate the person from the problem is not always practica ble. There are societies in which personal relationships have a very high value, and separating the two is difficult. 11 3. 4. Cultural and Identity Aspects International and ethnic conflicts have within them components that are intangible, hard to define and to identify: culture and identity.Without recognizing them, and dealing with them, the negotiation or mediation has little chance of success. Faure and Rubin (1993) define culture as â€Å"a set of shared and enduring meanings, values, and beliefs that characterize national, ethnic, and other groups, and orient their behavior. † There are cultural differences between the individual and the collective. There are countries and cultures that stress the high value of collective responsibility and commitment to the group, while in others the stress is on individualism and responsibility to oneself.The Sulha is the Arab traditional way of conflict resolution. It works because of the collective responsibility of the extended fa mily (hamula). This responsibility and commitment to preserve the honor and reputation of the family prevents all members of the family (even those who did not participate personally in the ceremony, and future generations) from breaking the customs and laws of the Sulha (Jabur, 1993). The Sulha is usually used in disputes such as family honor, killing, physical harm, or maiming.In desert areas and arid zones we find the use of the Sulha also in water disputes, as among the Bedouins in the south of Israel and the Berbers in Morocco. â€Å"Both Berbers and Bedouin follow this Islamic practice of a ritual ceremony of forgiveness. Once the ceremony is performed, the dispute may not be discussed – it is as if it never occurred† (Wolf, 2000). It is an effective and efficient way of resolving disputes in these communities. Even in cultures with a high degree of collective responsibility (such as Japan and China), we find cases where individual goals are opposed to the collec tive ones.We recognize the existence of sub-cultural differences in religions, organizations, and gender, and within various groups of professions (doctors, engineers, and so on). People who work in teams seem to demonstrate a collective responsibility, more so than pilots or athletes such as long-distance runners who are used to working individually. It is possible that the subculture of a hydraulic engineer as a professional person, will clash with his/her national culture of a certain belief and attitude towards water as a symbol.Culture is a very complex but important component, which should be taken into account in negotiation because it influences our perception of the world, our set of values, our actions, our decisions, and the results of the process. When negotiating with people, one should keep in mind that negotiators have different personalities, they come from different backgrounds, carry certain values and beliefs, and that the differences in their culture can be manif ested in several ways. One has to be aware of the many factors which may impact the negotiation: time, language, body signs, style, space, symbols, social and collective esponsibility, and the tradition of the social system. The Umatilla Basin conflict was over reserved water rights of the Indian Tribes for protection of the flow for fisheries, and for the use of the water by non-Indians for irrigation. This conflict over water rights not only carried within it the economic issues, but also had significant religious and cultural importance for the Indians, which had to be taken into consideration for the success of the consensus building process. (http://www. umatilla. nsn. us/basin. html) 12The cultural aspect is evident in ethnic conflicts within a country, and between nations. Negotiators from different cultures will value the element of time and space differently. Negotiators from some cultures are task-oriented and want to conclude the deal, while others are relationship-orient ed, and will not reach an agreement before getting to know, and creating a relationship with, the other party. Some negotiators perceive the negotiation process as a zero-sum game, a competitive process, while others will view it as a cooperative, joint problem-solving process.Some may come from social systems where force and power determine the results of the negotiation, and some from cultures where women are not accepted as negotiators. Culture is manifested in the behavioral styles of nations or communities, norms of behavior, hierarchies of social system, and social behavior. Negotiation can fail because one party is not sensitive to these cultural differences, or to the special communication style and decision-making pattern of their partners. Identity as defined by J. Rothman â€Å"is people’s collective need for dignity, recognition, safety, control, purpose, and efficacy. Many conflicts carry within them identity issues, and these conflicts may last many decades and be very destructive domestically (the conflict in Northern Ireland) or internationally (the conflict in Yugoslavia). Many international and group conflicts contain identity-based interests and needs that were not fulfilled (Rothman, 1993). These types of conflicts are very difficult to resolve and often require the assistance of a third party, acting as a facilitator/mediator. Sometimes a team of facilitators/mediators is used.The approach to resolving cultural and identity-based conflicts is a combination of interest-based negotiation and the process of dialogue and consensus building. The â€Å"third party† would help to identify the parties to the negotiation and decide who the participants will be; conduct a conflict assessment by identifying the major issues and interests of the parties; and identify the reasons and motivation for participating and resolving the conflict. Because the process is voluntary, one has to: ? ? ? ? Understand the needs of the parties to partic ipate. Build confidence in the process among the parties.Design the process as one that is open and honest. Provide equal access to data and information to all parties in order to build confidence in the process and the participants, facilitate their dialogue, assist in generating many creative options, and come to a consensus on the best option(s) and a solution acceptable to the parties. It is then the responsibility of the parties to implement the agreed solution. These tasks may take place over an extended period of time, depending on the ability and willingness of the parties to work for mutual gain, and the nature and complexity of the negotiation. 3. 5.Psychological Aspects The psychological attitude of individuals to negotiation, their personal perceptions, past experience, and expectations are manifested in rational or irrational decisions, which have an effect on the outcome of the negotiation. When people engage in negotiation there are emotions involved that affect their attitude and actions. Anger, hurt, revenge, hope, and fear are all feelings that one brings to the negotiation table, and these feelings influence the process and have an impact on the outcome. These feelings have to be dealt with by the parties in order to reach a rational decision and resolve the dispute. 3 Negotiators arrive at the negotiation table not only with their personal feelings, but also with their personal tendencies and analysis of the situation. For example, the negotiator can be loss or risk averse, overconfident and optimistic, or unrealistic about the uncertainty of the negotiation outcome. These tendencies influence their behavior, and create obstacles, which may lead to unreasonable decisions (Tversky and Kahanman, 1995). Some negotiators tend to assume that it is best not to disclose information if they want to succeed in the negotiation.Parties are sometimes too concerned with the fear of â€Å"being taken advantage of† to be able to think of the negoti ation in terms of â€Å"joint problem solving. † Parties in a competitive negotiation may be indifferent to the gains of the other, but more often this competitiveness leads the parties down an emotional path where minimizing gains or causing a loss to the other party becomes the goal, even at the expense of their own interests. Many negotiators assume that the â€Å"pie is fixed† and therefore negotiate over position and not interests.The â€Å"fixed-pie bias† can prevent the parties from taking advantage of opportunities to enlarge the pie (Birk and Fox, 1999). 3. 5. 1. Psychological Traps Wanting to look tough and consistent in the eyes of the other party, and finding it important to prove – to themselves, to the constituencies at home, or to others – that one was right acting the way one did, may be a trap. It is common for negotiators to focus and react to the other party and their attitude, moves, and tactics, rather than focusing on a strate gy that would advance their own needs and interests.In many cases, this commitment to a course of action they started will be at a cost and will not achieve their own goals. As time moves on, parties to the negotiation feel that they have too much time, money, and ego invested, and backing off becomes less and less of an option (Bazerman and Neal, 1993). Both sides will often start with extreme demands, expecting to compromise somewhere in the middle. Getting caught up in the struggle, not wanting to be the first to â€Å"blink,† toughens the negotiation and makes both sides become more entrenched in their initial position.Parties may wish to impress the others by acting strong, being consistent, and making sure that they will not be taken advantage of. This also involves a notion that negotiators adopt in the line of showing strength: if you have doubts – be overconfident. This, and the need to be in full control, does not allow the questioning of one’s positio ns or the development of an ability to view things from different perspectives and consider different, sometimes more productive, approaches that would advance the negotiation.Being committed to a certain position or course of action creates a bias in favor of the data consistent with this specific course of action. One is ready and able to â€Å"hear† data and information that will support this position, but not open to hear or accept new ideas. This course encourages the parties in further self-persuasion and rationalization concerning the correctness of their positions. It also entails holding on to one’s positions without looking more deeply into the initial interests that may contradict the positions displayed.This attitude will lead the parties to miss opportunities to create options (or find a trade off) that might enlarge the pie and benefit both sides. Some negotiators would prefer to leave issues open or unresolved, and would even create a dispute rather than think they were defeated or were forced to make concessions. Instead of taking the risk of cooperating, some people would prefer the risk of competing, hoping to â€Å"win. † Research indicates that many negotiators will choose a small sure win over a risky larger win (Bazerman, 1986). 4 Research indicates that people become more entrapped when: ? ? ? They are especially anxious about their appearance in the eyes of others. They believe their effectiveness is judged and criticized by others (Rubin, 1981). They tend to interpret the other party’s offer of concession as a sign of weakness. This tendency makes one suspicious towards gestures of a constructive nature. Concession may be perceived as a â€Å"too easy gain† and rejected, while demands that are rejected or denied would be perceived as important.It is important to evaluate rationally what it is that one is about to lose or sacrifice. In many cases, an offer of concession may be perceived as an opportuni ty to demand and gain more, and instead of responding in a constructive manner, it leads to further toughening one’s positions (Ross and LaCroix, 1996). Other points that should be borne in mind are: ? ? When one is on a non-constructive course, the tendency is to expand and escalate. Conflicts independent of their initiating causes are developed, and are likely to continue after the initiating causes have been solved (Deutsch, 1973).Negotiators should try and search for the issues that both parties share in common, rather than the issues that would further expand the differences and create more barriers and dichotomies between the parties, misinterpretations of the other’s line of thought, and reduction of their own ability to resolve the dispute. The non-cooperative way of perceiving negotiation is not necessarily an outcome of people’s personality or character, but part of the western competitive society. It may be due to the fact that the parties o not know another way. ? In the â€Å"cooperative approach† it is important to share interests that will enable the parties to see the picture as a whole, evaluating the issues and interests, so that an agreement will be reached that will be acceptable to all parties, and not leave any ungarnered gains on the negotiating table. All parties have to understand that they have a common stake in the situation and that there is more to be gained by negotiating and exchanging ideas than by competing.A basic motivation in an â€Å"interest-based negotiation† is to collaborate for the mutual benefit of all parties. Putting one’s needs and interests on the negotiation table includes the presupposition that the other party is willing to take them into account and show understanding of those needs. Realizing that even opposing needs can be dealt with in a different way may lead to some creative new ideas. A well-known example that best describes the idea of the cooperative, integrati ve approach to negotiation is Mary Parker Follet’s story of the two sisters who both wanted the same orange.A non-cooperative but reasonable solution would be to cut it in half, each of the sisters getting her share. But, underestimating the true needs and interests of each of the sisters, it is revealed that while one wants to squeeze the orange in order to drink its juice, the other is aiming for its rind, planning to bake a cake with it. In this case it is possible to reach a solution that allows each of the sisters to gain more than by the presumably reasonable solution of cutting it in half (Fox and Urwick, 1973). 15In more complex situations, where the parties plan on future cooperation, a truly integrative negotiation would lead not only to a mutually agreed solution, but enlarge the pie by not leaving joint gains on the table. To reach an innovative solution, trust has to be gained. Trust makes it possible to open up consideration of the other party’s perspecti ve, needs, and interests. Sharing information, discussing concerns, talking about needs, and developing ways of thinking together will create a cooperative mode for a joint problem-solving negotiation process.Learning the strategies and techniques of interest-based negotiation, and understanding its benefits, make it possible to transform not only the approach towards negotiation, but also people’s perception of the way one should deal with conflicts. In many cases, where suspicion and mistrust are involved, where the dynamic is negative and destructive, and the negotiation process has come to a standstill, it is beneficial to use a neutral third party, a mediator, who will help facilitate the negotiation process. A third party’s presence may help to change the atmosphere.In the presence of a neutral, some of the antagonism and suspicions may be transformed into rational evaluation of the situation, helping to overcome the distrust in order to cross barriers that stand in the way of resolution. 3. 6. International Negotiation In past decades, only diplomats conducted international negotiation and agreements between countries. Negotiating today is not restricted to the diplomatic corps; it involves professional people, experts, non-governmental organizations, local interested groups, local authorities, and international entities, all of which have an impact on the process.Cultural issues play a major part in international negotiation, and have a significant impact on it. A strong personal relationship and trust between the negotiators can be a positive force in future agreements. Issues such as personal relations, time, sovereignty, face-saving, mode of bargaining, and hierarchy, which are culturally based, need to be considered during negotiations between different nations, societies, and ethnic groups. Today it is realized that conflicts and the issues involved are very complex, the outcomes are far reaching, and can often affect other nations, a region, or the world.The international negotiation process is more complex, because of the various interdependencies between countries, cultural issues, and past history, and the fact that individual people, or a group of people negotiate on behalf of a collective. Their culture, psychology, emotional state, behavior, ethics, values, and private agendas may affect the outcome of the negotiation. In the past decades the world has become one global village. Distances are smaller, communication means are easier and faster, and the economy has become a major factor in international relations.A conflict between two or more countries may affect a whole region. The conflict in Yugoslavia had an adverse effect economically on the shipping and transport industry on the Danube, with very heavy financial loses for countries such as Hungary, Ukraine, Germany, Romania, and Austria, which were not connected with the conflict in Yugoslavia (Egglestone, 1999). The Israeli–Palestinian confl ict affects the whole region, especially the economy and political situation of Israel and the Palestinian Authority, but also neighboring countries such as Egypt and Jordan that are negatively affected. 6 A conflict in one country may affect many markets around the world, as dependency between nations, economies, and international institutions – along with conflict situations – has increased. The terrorist attack in New York on September 11 2001 had a serious economic effect not only on the US but also on the global economy. We live in a new and changing world, in which negotiation plays a major role in resolving these conflicts. The bilateral arena is simpler than the multilateral arena because of the fact that there are only two adversaries with conflicting interests.The multilateral arena is a very involved one because of the fact that there are a number of parties, and many issues and interests at stake. The parties have to manage this complex situation by simplif ying, structuring, and deciding on the priorities of issues. They have to manage the proceedings, and the orientation that will provide a direction toward a mutually agreeable outcome (Zartman, 1994; see also article by Young in that volume). In the process of negotiation between countries, or international entities, one nation often needs to build a coalition with others to achieve its goals.The parties to the coalition do not have necessarily the same interests, priorities, or values, but have some similar objectives. Countries who try to form a coalition often use power, economic or military dependencies, and other strategies to induce other countries to join the coalition. The United States built a coalition with many countries during the Gulf war, and in the war against terrorism in Afghanistan. Coalitions are created by negotiation with the countries one wants as allies and partners, against another country (Watkins and Rosegrant, 1996).Turkey, while in conflict with Iraq and Syria, has created an economic and military alliance with Israel, buying military equipment from Israel, and is willing to sell water to Israel, while Syria, who in the past had a conflict with Iraq, strengthened her economic ties with that country (Francona, 1999). www. suit101. com/article/ctm/28688 Parties can form coalitions that may change in time, and with them the issues and interests may shift in the ladder of priorities. Multilateral agreements are always reached by consensus.Bangladesh, which formed a coalition with India who helped in gaining its independence from Pakistan, is threatening to cancel the Treaty of Friendship with India because of the issues of reduced quantities of water and increased salinity in the water, which endangers the existence of millions in Bangladesh (Frederick, 1996). Often countries negotiate over issues that influence directly the local/domestic publics. These publics may determine the outcome of the negotiation by supporting or 17 opposing a n agreement.It is important for a country to reach a consensus with the local domestic entities before an international agreement is reached. The Dutch nurseries and the Pure Water Institution sued the Alsace Potassium Co. ; the fact that there was a lawsuit against a French company influenced the French Government in their decision to ratify the 1979 Chemical Agreement (Haftendorn, 1999). 3. 7. Negotiations Over Water An increasing number of states are experiencing occasional or lasting water stress, yet in most cases mechanisms and institutions to manage disputes over water resources are either absent or inadequate.Competition over this precious resource could increasingly become a source of tension – and even conflict – between states and sectors. History has often shown that the need for freshwater can cause different users to cooperate, rather than allow confrontations that could jeopardize the water supplies. Competition may arise between different groups or sect ors (agriculture and cities), between countries (upstream–downstream), and over allocation and use of water between urban development and the environment. Water Conflicts can be resolved in various ways: ? ? Force: a decision imposed by force on one or more of the parties. Adjudication: a decision rendered by an authority, state, institution, Court of Law, or Special Master. Some states assign a â€Å"Special Master† who will act as a judge or arbitrator in water disputes. Negotiation: a decision requiring an agreement among the parties. The tendency for resolution in the world today is to use interest-based negotiation and mediation, equitable and reasonable use of water, and reach an agreement where the parties will jointly manage the shared water resources. . 7. 1. International Water Negotiations/Conflicts Water has always been an integral part of a nation’s history, religion, and culture, and carries an important symbolic importance. Problems and disputes o ver water in the national and international arena are a fact of life. Water, as a scarce resource, has always been a reason for conflicts between people, communities, and nations. Conflicts over water exist in many parts of the world.These conflicts can arise nationally and internationally and are due to the competing needs for and utilization of the water: drinking, irrigation, transportation, flood control, hydro-electricity, fishing, recreation, and the environment. Conflicts can arise between riparians situated upstream – who control the sources – and those downstream, who are at a disadvantage (e. g. the Nile, Sudan and Egypt), between those on the two banks of a river (the Parana River between Paraguay and Brazil), or around a lake (Lake Chad and The Sea of Galilee).Conflicts arise because of a range of issues. QUANTITY Concerns over quantity arise when the resource is not sufficient to meet all the needs of the riparian countries, frequently because of rising de mands due to population growth and improved standards of living. A country upstream, which controls the source, often claims sovereignty over the water, resulting in a conflict with the downstream countries. 18 Turkey claims sovereignty over the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and started the GAP project, which will be beneficial to Turkey.This is a source of concern to Syria and Iraq downstream, and has resulted in tension with Turkey. (http://www. mfa. gov. tr/grupa. ad/adg/adgc/html) WATER QUALITY AND POLLUTION When upstream countries cause the pollution of a river and degrade the quality of the water reaching downstream riparians, water quality and pollution can cause conflicts between the users. Many countries along its route use the river Rhine. Pollution of the river has been caused by the chemical industries of Germany, Switzerland, and France, and the shipping industry along the river.The shipping issue was resolved in 1950 by creating an International Commission. The chemical pollution imposed a burden on the Netherlands, who